Watchman News

Night owls who keep a late schedule are 20% to 40% likelier to be diagnosed with a mental health disorder than those who go to bed earlier, according to a study by Stanford Medicine researchers that tracked the sleep habits of 73,888 people.1,2 This was an observational analysis of U.K. Biobank participants, using seven days of wrist accelerometry alongside hospital diagnostic records. The finding caught my attention because of what it actually pins down: In this cohort, it was the late bedtime itself — not whether that bedtime matched a person’s own chronotype — that tracked with poorer mental health.
Published in the journal Psychiatry Research, this cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of middle-aged and older adults (averaging 63.5 years old) drew a link between bedtimes past midnight and higher rates of diagnosed anxiety and mood disorders.3 Even those who consider themselves intermediate sleepers faced worse outcomes if they veered into truly late-night territory. The difference in emotional health was significant enough that it prompted a strong call for lights out by 1 a.m.
I find these results compelling, especially because another narrative review published in Frontiers in Neuroscience highlighted how the body’s internal clock relates to mental well-being.4 Late chronotypes, meaning those inclined toward later bedtimes and wake times, tend to accumulate sleep debt and show shifted hormone timing. That review links the evening chronotype to a higher risk of depressive disorders and to anxiety symptoms, while stating plainly that the causal relationship remains unclear. This is a tough combination for anyone trying to navigate daily life.
Poor sleep can hurt your mental health, but you can break free from unhealthy sleep patterns. That said, the featured research here is observational rather than interventional, but it consistently associates earlier, more regular bedtimes with better mental health outcomes.

A Closer Examination of Late Bedtimes and Emotional Health
The Psychiatry Research study5 took a deep look at whether going to bed late makes a real difference in emotional well-being over time. Investigators drew on data from the U.K. Biobank, analyzing how each individual’s usual bedtime either clashed or lined up with what they believed to be their natural sleep window.
By comparing those patterns to mental health diagnoses, they pinpointed whether people who consistently pushed their bedtime too far into the night faced a higher likelihood of anxiety or depressive episodes.
This research focused on a population of middle-aged and older adults, and each participant wore a wrist-based activity monitor for seven consecutive days. That tracker captured specific bedtimes and wake times, revealing who stayed up into the early-morning hours.
The study also tapped into standardized health records, using diagnostic codes to identify mood and behavioral conditions.6 On top of that, the investigators measured each person’s self-stated chronotype — that is, whether someone felt more like an evening type (a “night owl”), a morning type (an “early bird”), or landed somewhere in the middle.
A clear association between truly late bedtimes and elevated risk for mental health struggles emerged.7 Individuals whose routines veered well past midnight had stronger links to mood disruptions, even if they were convinced they did their best thinking or working at night. In plain terms, later bedtimes tracked with higher odds of mood disruption. The featured study measured sleep timing rather than circadian phase itself, so why that link exists is still an open question.
The researchers also highlighted that some morning-oriented individuals who overrode their usual preference and started going to bed after midnight ran into similar emotional pitfalls.8 It didn’t matter that they felt naturally ready to rise early; once they forced themselves to stay up, their odds of anxiety or low mood went up. What the study found, though, was that clock time mattered more than the match: Evening types who managed an earlier bedtime showed a lower risk of depression, not a higher one. With this in mind, the authors’ recommendation is to be asleep before 1 a.m. regardless of chronobiological preference.
Because this analysis included both a one-time snapshot (cross-sectional data) and a longer-term follow-up (longitudinal data), it offered the team more confidence in the direction of the association.9 They weren’t simply looking at people who already dealt with mood disorders; they also tracked a group with no known history of depression or anxiety. Over roughly eight years of follow-up, those who followed later bedtimes were more likely to receive a first diagnosis of a mood or anxiety disorder. That sequence strengthens the case, though an observational study of this kind still cannot establish cause and effect.
Does Staying Up Too Late Encourage Self-Defeating Choices?
The authors note that staying awake beyond the typical evening window might open the door to self-defeating choices.10 Staying up late exposes you to more time alone, which can lead to unhealthy behaviors like endless scrolling, overeating, drinking, or using other substances that affect your mood. This combination, they suggested, may trigger or deepen depressive feelings and anxious thoughts for many people, especially over long stretches.
The study explained that even individuals who felt like their ideal bedtime was on the later side experienced measurable emotional strain when they routinely went far past their own normal limit.11 Practically speaking, that makes gradually easing back toward an earlier lights-out schedule a reasonable thing to try — bearing in mind that this featured study observed sleep patterns rather than testing whether changing them improves mental health.
Biologically, these outcomes point to your body’s main circadian regulator, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in your brain, which keeps most of your rhythms — such as sleep-wake cycles and hormone releases — in sync with daylight and darkness.12
Delaying your bedtime is associated with shifted hormone timing and altered temperature rhythms. These are patterns described in the wider circadian literature rather than measured in this particular study, which collected movement data and diagnostic codes only. Whether that shift is what erodes emotional balance has not been established.
The authors concluded that this internal misalignment may set off a cascade of chemical and neural responses.13 For instance, melatonin — the hormone that nudges you into slumber — surges later than normal, and cortisol — known as the stress hormone — follows a daily curve that shifts along with sleep timing, so it may still be elevated when you are trying to wind down.
Your body perceives that signal as a call to stay alert, making restful sleep less achievable. Over time, that pattern saps your emotional buffer, so a single bad day or stressful event feels heavier. One thing worth adding here, because it changes what you do about it: most of your melatonin is not made in the pineal gland at all. It is produced inside your mitochondria in response to near-infrared light, which is why getting outdoors during the day matters as much as keeping your nights dark.
These findings emphasize how important it is to pay attention to your personal bedtime cues. If you’ve been wondering why your moods wobble when you push your lights out to the limit, this study makes a reasonable case for moving your bedtime earlier — before 1 a.m. is the benchmark as mentioned earlier — whether or not you consider yourself a night person.
An Inside Look at Intricate Body Clocks and Emotional Harmony
A separate narrative review published in Frontiers in Neuroscience14 sought to examine how a person’s chronotype interplays with psychiatric disorders. Researchers gathered and reviewed findings from a wide range of clinical reports and academic sources to identify common threads and underlying biological factors that tie late-night tendencies to mental health challenges. Because it is a review rather than original research, its conclusions inherit the limitations of the studies it summarizes — most of which, the authors note, are cross-sectional and rely on self-reported chronotype.
Rather than zero in on one particular age group or narrow population, the authors pulled insights from multiple lines of scientific inquiry, assembling a broad perspective on the role of circadian rhythms. Those featured in the final review spanned various categories of mental health, including people with major depression, bipolar disorder, substance use disorders, and more.15
By pooling existing evidence, the authors aimed to show that an individual’s internal clock is associated with not only sleep quality but also hormone patterns, neurotransmitter function, and even brain structure. Their hypothesis was that these intertwined mechanisms form the core link between a person’s inclination toward evening or morning lifestyles and the likelihood of developing or worsening psychiatric issues.
The review also highlighted genes known as “clock genes.”16 These genes create a 24-hour cycle in the body by turning certain biological processes on and off at predictable times, including periods of heightened activity and rest. When you naturally skew toward late nights, your clock genes appear to operate on a slightly extended cycle — roughly 24.3 hours in evening types versus 24.1 in morning types — pushing your body’s energy peaks and troughs into later hours. This shift, in turn, travels together with later timing of hormones like cortisol and melatonin, though the review does not establish which drives which.
One of the most intriguing points the authors made was that circadian misalignment — meaning a mismatch between your internal clock and the clock society expects you to keep — is associated with more than just feeling tired.17 The review links it to changes across several biological systems. It is worth holding this alongside the U.K. Biobank finding above, though. There, evening types who shifted to an earlier bedtime showed a lower risk of depression, not a higher one.
This partially explains why evening chronotype individuals have a more challenging time adjusting to social obligations that start early in the morning, like jobs or school.18 Your brain doesn’t simply flip a switch and perform optimally if it has already begun shifting melatonin production deep into the night. Over time, you may find it harder to steady your mood or handle stressors at work or home. At a population level, the featured review also associates the evening chronotype with higher rates of substance use disorders — an association across groups, not a forecast for any one person.
Overall, the review19 makes a compelling argument that your natural leanings toward later nights encompass much more than personal preference. They touch on intricate systems — encompassing genes, neurotransmitters, and key hormones — that carry consequences for your psychological well-being.
If you regularly push bedtime deeper into the night, or if you keep an inconsistent schedule altogether, it may work against the systems that help keep your emotions steady and your thinking sharp — a link that the research describes as consistent, while stopping short of calling it causal.
Practical Steps for Resetting Your Sleep Cycle
Sleep issues run deeper than just late bedtimes though. Many factors, including stress, artificial light, and poor sleeping position, can make it hard to fall and stay asleep. To optimize your sleep, both in terms of quantity and quality, consider the following suggestions:

Shift your bedtime in small increments — If your lights-out time has been creeping past midnight for years, avoid an abrupt change. Move your bedtime 15 or 30 minutes earlier each week until you settle into a window like 9 p.m. or 10 p.m. This gentler approach helps your body and mind adapt without sparking extra frustration. Abruptly cutting off hours of late-night activity often leads to tossing and turning, so aim for gradual progress.
Harness morning light — Natural light is a powerful way to realign your internal clock. Head outside shortly after you wake up to get sunlight exposure. That sends a direct signal to your brain that day has started, keeping you from drifting into a prolonged late-night cycle. In the evening, be strategic. Lower the lights well before bed, and turn off electronics so your body can wind down effectively rather than feeling wired.
Darken your sleeping space — Even the faintest light tricks your brain into staying on alert. Use blackout curtains if streetlights shine in, or slip on a comfortable eye mask to block every trace of illumination. Darkness supports your body’s nighttime melatonin release, which is associated with deeper rest. Unplug devices so that nothing interrupts the pitch-black environment you need for sound sleep.
For your bedroom I strongly recommend non-flicker red LED bulbs. They are about 3 watts and have zero blue light. Exposure to blue light in the hours leading up to bedtime is associated with poorer sleep and with suppression of your body’s release of melatonin. So, make sure you filter out blue light from all sources after sunset and before sunrise.
Use proper sleep posture and specialized neck support — Supporting your neck while you sleep is generally recommended for keeping it in a neutral position. I am not aware of long-term trials showing that it changes the course of degenerative change in the spine, but in this interview with Dr. Peter Martone, he explains how proper sleep posture, especially for your neck, can support your well-being. If you’re used to sleeping on your side or in a curled-up fetal position, it might seem strange at first to lie on your back.
However, back-sleeping is often recommended for aligning your spine and easing stress on your neck and shoulders. I realize it’s a habit change, but transitioning to back-sleeping is worth the effort for healthier posture.
I recommend a cervical pillow designed to cradle your neck without elevating your head too high, allowing your neck to arch gently backward. My Posture Perfect Pillow has a bow-tie shape intended to support the neck’s natural curve and reduce pressure on the muscles around it. Disclaimer — these are design intentions rather than tested clinical outcomes.
If you’re someone who’s woken up with a crick in your neck more times than you can count, or dealt with morning headaches, many people find this kind of support changes how rested and comfortable you feel.
Craft a consistent bedtime routine — Beyond lights and posture, your regular wind-down routine matters. Wrap up meals at least three hours before bed, and consider lowering the temperature in your room so you’re not restless from heat. If swirling thoughts keep you awake, try journaling or keep a notepad beside you to park your worries until morning.
Some people like gentle stretching or reading a physical book — whatever it takes to gently signal that your day is done. This consistent pattern, repeated night after night, forms a powerful anchor for your body clock.
Then, when your head hits your pillow, it’s easier to surrender to a calm, restorative sleep. For more help, review my article “50 Tips to Improve Your Sleep,” which covers environmental tweaks, breathing exercises, and other targeted strategies. Adopting even one or two of those tips — like turning off Wi-Fi in the evening or sleeping in loose, comfortable clothing — can make for a more peaceful night.

Investing energy into these steps means you’re tackling both your internal clock misalignment and the mechanical strain your body endures overnight. As you develop a healthier schedule and pay attention to sleep posture, you may notice a difference both in how you feel during the day and in how your neck and upper back feel once you’re up and moving.
This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Color has surrounded human life since before we had words for it, yet the spaces where you likely spend most of your time have become noticeably muted. More than 80% of cars on the road today are grayscale — white, black, gray or silver — a dramatic shift from three decades ago, when bold colors were far more common.1 At the same time, designers and researchers who study color argue that this gradual shift toward bland environments has quietly changed what you see every day.

Instead of dismissing color as simple decoration, it deserves attention because even small visual details influence how you feel from morning until bedtime. You don’t need to repaint your house or overhaul your wardrobe.

The real leverage comes from understanding why your brain responds to color the way it does, and that explanation reaches back thousands of years into human evolution. Once you see that connection, everyday objects you already own become surprisingly powerful tools for lifting your mood. But color is only part of the story.

If you’ve ever reached a goal you worked toward for months or years only to feel the excitement fade within days, you already understand a deeper problem with how most people think about happiness itself. There is a better framework, one that turns joy from a distant reward into something you experience right now, and it pairs naturally with the color strategies you’re about to discover.

Bright Colors Give Your Brain an Instant Lift

A feature published by TIME explored why bright colors have such a powerful effect on your emotions and why even small, intentional changes to your surroundings create noticeable improvements in how you feel.2 Rather than focusing on expensive home renovations or major lifestyle changes, the article examined how ordinary objects, such as a coffee mug, front door, umbrella or pair of shoes, influence your mood because you interact with them repeatedly throughout the day.

The article drew on interviews with Ingrid Fetell Lee, founder of The Aesthetics of Joy and author of “Joyful: The Surprising Power of Ordinary Things to Create Extraordinary Happiness,”3 Color Factory CEO Ben Williams, and color psychologist Karen Haller. Instead of treating color as decoration, these experts described it as a practical tool that influences how your brain processes everyday experiences.

Unlike many wellness trends that require significant time or money, this approach starts with items you already use every day. That means you have an opportunity to improve your environment immediately without completely changing your lifestyle.

• Your brain still reacts the way it did thousands of years ago — According to Lee, humans evolved color vision partly because it helped our primate ancestors locate ripe fruit among dense green leaves. Although your daily routine looks very different today, those ancient brain circuits remain active. Lee explained that bright colors still act as signals of life and energy, telling your brain that something valuable deserves attention.

As she described it, “We evolved to find joy when we see bright color, because that means nourishment is coming.” That helps explain why a colorful object often catches your attention before anything else in the room. Instead of requiring conscious effort, your brain reacts automatically because those survival pathways have remained intact throughout human evolution.

• Brightness matters more than picking the “perfect” color — Most people focus only on whether something is red, blue or green. Lee pointed out that two additional qualities have a much larger influence on emotional response: how light the color appears and how pure or saturated it is. Saturated means a color looks rich, vivid and intense instead of faded or gray.

Think of the difference between a fire-engine red and a dusty rose, or a cobalt blue and a washed-out periwinkle. Both pairs contain the same base hue, but the saturated version commands your attention while the muted one fades into the background. Lee explained that “Any hue can bring joy,” but colors that contain a lot of gray lose much of that emotional effect because they appear muddy instead of vibrant.

This means your favorite color matters less than choosing a version of that color that looks bright and lively. You don’t need to fill an entire room with bold colors, either. The article emphasized that small bursts of color often provide all the stimulation your brain needs while avoiding the visual overload that comes from covering every wall or piece of furniture in bright shades.

• The objects you touch every day have the greatest influence — Instead of saving colorful items for special occasions, Lee recommended placing them into your daily routine. She explained that a brightly colored coffee mug you use every morning offers more emotional value than decorative glasses that remain inside a cabinet most of the year.

Williams expanded on this idea by encouraging people to choose colorful everyday accessories such as shoelaces, earrings, keychains, backpacks or umbrellas because frequent interaction reinforces the positive emotional response. He even suggested something as simple as writing with a blue marker instead of a black one to introduce more color into routine tasks.
• Personal memories determine which colors make you happiest — Haller explained that there is no universally “correct” color because emotional responses depend heavily on your own experiences. A particular shade often reminds you of a vacation, favorite place, loved one or meaningful event, even if you don’t immediately recognize the connection.

Haller summarized this idea simply: “There’s no such thing as a wrong color. It’s what’s right for you.” Instead of following design trends or someone else’s recommendations, she encouraged people to identify colors that naturally trigger positive memories and emotions. She also warned against assuming that more color automatically creates more happiness.

Her advice was to think of color like turning the volume knob on a radio. Highly saturated colors provide strong stimulation, so a little often produces a better result than covering an entire room with the same bright shade.

What makes color so effective is that it works through repetition, not intensity; a small joyful signal encountered dozens of times a day. That principle raises a bigger question: if micro-moments of pleasure shape your mood more reliably than you expected, how do they compare to the major achievements most people spend years chasing? The research on that question challenges some deeply held assumptions about what a satisfying life actually requires.

Daily Joy Builds a More Satisfying Life Than Chasing Milestones

In an article published by The Aesthetics of Joy, Lee challenged the conventional idea that success depends on promotions, higher income, status or recognition.4 Instead, she explored why joy deserves to become your primary measure of a fulfilling life. The article examined psychological principles and practical examples that help explain why people often feel unfulfilled even after reaching goals they spent years pursuing.

Lee argued that many people postpone happiness until they reach the next milestone. That approach creates a cycle where satisfaction always remains somewhere in the future instead of becoming part of everyday life. Her message is straightforward: success feels more meaningful when your daily routine includes regular moments of joy instead of waiting for one major achievement to provide lasting happiness.

This shift matters because it places something important back under your control. You can’t always control promotions, awards or financial outcomes, but you control many of the choices that influence how each day feels.

• Waiting for happiness often leaves people disappointed — Lee described a psychological concept called the “arrival fallacy” — the gap between the happiness you expect a goal to deliver and the happiness it actually provides. The pattern is predictable: you sacrifice present enjoyment for a future payoff, reach the goal, feel a brief surge of satisfaction, and then watch it fade far faster than you expected.

After finally reaching the goal, many immediately begin chasing another one instead. As Lee wrote, “We often reach our desired milestone only to find the promised happiness has somehow slipped through our fingers.”

If that pattern sounds familiar, try a simple exercise. Think about one accomplishment that once seemed life-changing. Then ask yourself how long that excitement actually lasted. That reflection often reveals how quickly external achievements become normal while everyday experiences continue to shape your overall happiness.

• Small joyful moments create a positive cycle that strengthens motivation — Rather than treating joy as a reward after hard work, Lee explained that joy actually helps produce better work. She described research showing that joyful people perform better across several areas, including memory, creative thinking, problem-solving and productivity. Joyful salespeople build stronger customer relationships, while joyful leaders encourage greater teamwork and collaboration.

Joy creates what psychologists call an “upward spiral,” meaning one positive experience increases the likelihood of another. Feeling happier makes you more engaged. Greater engagement leads to more satisfaction. That satisfaction encourages creativity, curiosity and stronger relationships, which create even more joyful experiences.
Instead of trying to force motivation every morning, you become more motivated because your daily routine includes experiences that naturally energize you. That creates momentum instead of exhaustion.

Workplace research reinforces the pattern. A 2021 survey by management consulting firm Kearney found that 61% of working adults experienced less joy at work than they expected, a gap that widened across every generation and industry between 2018 and 2021.5

The employees who reported the most satisfaction weren’t necessarily in better jobs; they were the ones who received sincere recognition, understood how their work served a meaningful purpose and maintained genuine social connections with coworkers.

• Your daily routine matters more than occasional major events — Lee emphasized that a meaningful life develops from ordinary moments repeated over time rather than rare celebrations. Relationships grow through everyday conversations instead of a single memorable vacation.

Career satisfaction comes from enjoying your work most days instead of relying on one promotion every few years. She reinforced the point with Annie Dillard’s observation that how you spend your days is, ultimately, how you spend your life — a reminder that long-term quality of life isn’t decided in rare peak moments but in the texture of ordinary mornings and evenings.

• Success looks different when it matches your own values — Lee encouraged readers to redefine success in ways that reflect their personal priorities instead of comparing themselves with everyone else. She suggested evaluating success through presence, meaningful relationships, personal values, vitality and freedom instead of status alone.

One example came from Patagonia founder Yvon Chouinard, whose company encourages employees to spend time surfing when conditions are ideal rather than remaining chained to a rigid schedule. The philosophy focuses on aligning work with personal values instead of measuring productivity by hours alone.
Lee also highlighted Ina Garten’s practice of concentrating on doing her best each day instead of becoming consumed by distant long-term goals. These examples reinforce an important lesson: your definition of success doesn’t need to match anyone else’s. When your choices reflect what truly matters to you, satisfaction becomes part of everyday life instead of something reserved for special occasions.

Choose Small Daily Habits That Make Joy Easier to Find

The strongest message is that joy isn’t something you earn after years of hard work. It grows from the choices you make every day. Think about creating an environment and lifestyle that naturally support positive emotions instead of waiting for happiness to arrive after the next accomplishment.

1. Add one meaningful burst of color to something you use every day — Start with an object that already belongs to your daily routine instead of buying decorations that sit on a shelf. A colorful coffee mug, notebook, water bottle, phone case, backpack, umbrella or front door gives your brain repeated reminders of something enjoyable because you see it over and over again.

If you spend most of the day at a desk, brighten your workspace with one object that immediately catches your eye. If you spend more time outside the home, choose something you carry with you. Small changes repeated every day have a much greater impact than items you rarely notice.

When choosing a color, remember that saturation matters more than the specific hue. Look for versions that appear vivid and rich rather than faded or grayish. If you’re unsure where to start, try swapping one neutral object per week — replace a gray phone case with a saturated blue one, trade a beige mug for a bright yellow, or switch a black notebook for deep red.

Testing a few saturated options helps you discover which colors create the strongest response for you before committing to anything permanent.

2. Support your cellular energy so joy comes more naturally — I believe genuine joy rests on a healthy foundation of cellular energy. Your mitochondria, the tiny structures inside nearly every cell that produce the energy your body uses, influence far more than physical stamina. They also affect your mental clarity, emotional resilience and your ability to engage fully with the people and activities that matter most.

Your brain accounts for roughly 2% of your body weight but consumes about 20% of its energy, which means even a modest decline in mitochondrial output shows up first as brain fog, flattened motivation and a shorter emotional fuse — exactly the states that make joy harder to access.

As your mitochondrial function improves, many people find it easier to feel connected to their authentic selves and the inner guidance that helps direct them toward what brings lasting fulfillment. Being intentional with your health by eating nutrient-dense whole foods, getting regular sunlight, walking every day and supporting your metabolism gives you more energy, focus and resilience to enjoy the hobbies, relationships and experiences that make life meaningful.

3. Choose colors that remind you of happy memories instead of following trends — Your favorite color doesn’t need to match current decorating styles. It only needs to mean something to you. Think about places, vacations, family traditions or hobbies that always leave you feeling happier. Those memories often point you toward colors that naturally lift your mood.

I recommend looking through old photographs if nothing immediately comes to mind. You might discover the same shades appearing repeatedly in your favorite memories. Let those colors become part of your everyday surroundings.

4. Keep a simple joy journal for one week — Lee recommended keeping a daily record of joyful moments, conducting a “joy audit” by reviewing which accomplishments created lasting happiness, redefining goals around enjoyment rather than status, and celebrating smaller milestones instead of postponing every reward until the finish line.

None of these require expensive equipment, extra education or dramatic lifestyle changes. They simply encourage you to pay closer attention to experiences that already improve your life. Over time, those observations make future decisions easier because you begin recognizing which people, places and activities consistently leave you feeling energized.

5. Measure your days by how they feel, not only by what you accomplish — Goals still matter, but they don’t need to become the only way you evaluate your life. If every good feeling depends on reaching the next milestone, satisfaction always stays somewhere in the future.

Instead, ask yourself one simple question each evening: “Did I make time for something that brought me genuine joy today?” That small habit shifts your attention toward experiences you control instead of achievements that often take months or years to reach. Over time, those choices shape how your days feel, and your days ultimately shape your life.

FAQs About Color and Building Daily Joy

Q: Does adding more color to my surroundings really improve my mood?
A: Yes. Bright, intentional colors attract your brain’s attention and make ordinary moments feel more engaging. You don’t need to repaint your entire home. A colorful object that you use every day, such as a mug, notebook or umbrella, often has a greater effect because you see it repeatedly.

Q: How do I choose the best color for me?
A: Focus on colors that make you feel happy or remind you of meaningful memories rather than following decorating trends. A favorite vacation, hobby or family tradition often points you toward shades that naturally create positive emotions. The right color is the one that feels right to you.

Q: Why doesn’t reaching a major goal always make me happy for long?
A: Many people expect lasting happiness after achieving a promotion, financial goal or other milestone. Instead, the excitement often fades quickly because lasting satisfaction comes from the experiences you have every day, not from occasional achievements alone.

Q: What is one simple habit that helps me build more joy?
A: Spend a few minutes each evening writing down one moment that made you smile. After a week or two, you’ll begin to notice patterns that reveal which people, places and activities consistently leave you feeling energized and fulfilled.

Q: How does taking care of my health help me experience more joy?
A: Your body and brain rely on healthy cellular energy to support clear thinking, emotional resilience and enthusiasm for everyday life. Eating nutrient-dense whole foods, spending time in natural sunlight, moving your body regularly and building healthy daily routines give you more energy to enjoy the relationships, hobbies and experiences that matter most.

Colorectal cancer was once primarily a disease of older adults, but that pattern has been shifting in the past decades. Rates of early-onset colorectal cancer, meaning cases diagnosed before age 50, have been rising in 27 of 50 countries and territories examined in a global analysis. The trend was first documented in high-income Western nations, but it now extends to countries in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.1

In the United States, the incidence of colorectal cancer in people younger than 50 years old has increased by 2.9% per year from 2013 to 2022, even though overall incidence has dropped by about 1% per year, mostly among older adults. It ranks as the third leading cause of cancer-related death in American men and the fourth in women. Combined, it is the second most common cause of cancer death overall.2

In parallel with this rise, one major change in dietary patterns has drawn increasing attention — the growing dominance of ultraprocessed foods. A study published in JAMA Oncology investigated whether higher intake of these items is linked to a greater risk of developing early-onset colorectal cancer, a concern with growing relevance as these foods become dietary staples.3

Higher Ultraprocessed Food Intake Linked to Early Precancerous Colorectal Growths

The featured study, which is prospective observational cohort research, analyzed data from the Nurses’ Health Study II, a large ongoing U.S. cohort of female registered nurses born between 1947 and 1964. The authors followed over 29,100 participants who completed at least one lower gastrointestinal endoscopy before age 50 and assessed long-term dietary patterns to explore possible links between ultraprocessed food consumption and the development of early colorectal tumors.4

• Researchers focused on early precancerous growths and long-term diet patterns — They reviewed the participants’ medical records to confirm the presence of polyps, specifically adenomas. These are growths that form in the lining of the colon or rectum and can serve as early warning signs for colorectal cancer.

The study also evaluated serrated lesions, another type of polyp that arises through a different molecular pathway and can also lead to cancer, though the biology and risks differ. Dietary intake was tracked using food frequency questionnaires collected every four years, covering how often participants consumed specific foods over the prior 12 months.

• Higher ultraprocessed intake linked to markedly greater early adenoma risk — Women who ate the most ultraprocessed foods, about 10 servings a day, had 45% higher odds of developing conventional adenomas before age 50 than those who ate the least, averaging a little over three servings daily.

The link was also seen for adenomas in the distal colon and rectum, although the researchers found that the association did not differ significantly by polyp size, type, malignancy risk, or location. This relationship held even after adjusting for other risk factors, including age, family history, body mass index (BMI), alcohol intake, smoking, physical activity, total calorie consumption, and overall diet quality.

• Risk climbed with intake then plateaued at higher levels — The researchers found a clear dose-response pattern, with adenoma risk increasing as ultraprocessed food intake rose, then leveling off around seven to eight servings per day.

Eating more than eight servings daily did not keep raising risk in a straight line, yet the overall link between higher intake and elevated adenoma risk remained statistically significant. A dose-response pattern like this adds weight to the association, although because the study was observational, it cannot prove that ultraprocessed foods caused the adenomas.

• Certain ultraprocessed categories showed notable associations — The study also examined which ultraprocessed subgroups were tied to early adenoma formation. Women who consumed the most sauces, spreads, and condiments were 23% more likely to develop early-onset conventional adenomas compared to those consuming the least.

The combined category of sugar- or artificially sweetened beverages showed a 25% increase, with artificially sweetened beverages alone demonstrating a 21% elevation when examined separately — one of the clearer individual associations in the analysis. Packaged savory snacks were associated with a 30% higher likelihood among top consumers, while the 11% difference seen for ultraprocessed breads and breakfast foods was not statistically significant. The researchers noted:

“Within UPF (ultraprocessed food) subgroups, no single food group appeared to drive the overall association of UPF intake, suggesting that the combined exposure to multiple food additives may exert a synergistic or cocktail effect on gut health by impairing barrier function and altering the microbiome.”5

• No link appeared for serrated lesions, possibly pointing to a specific pathway — This distinction matters because serrated lesions follow a different developmental pathway than conventional adenomas. The lack of association with serrated polyps suggests that ultraprocessed foods may influence colorectal cancer risk more through the adenoma-carcinoma sequence than through alternate routes of tumor development. The researchers cautioned, however, that the serrated category included hyperplastic polyps with limited cancer potential, which may have diluted the results.

While further research is still needed to explore the biological mechanisms and to confirm these results in other populations, this is, to the authors’ knowledge, the first prospective study to examine ultraprocessed food intake and precursors of early-onset colorectal cancer. Because the participants were predominantly well-educated, female nurses and the design was observational, keep in mind that the findings show an association rather than cause and effect.

What Is Considered Ultraprocessed Food?

Understanding what food counts as ultraprocessed requires looking beyond simple categories like “junk food” or “unhealthy snacks.” The classification system used in the JAMA Oncology study and increasingly adopted by nutrition researchers worldwide is called NOVA, first formally defined in 2009 by Brazilian researchers.6

• NOVA ranks foods by processing level and purpose, not nutrient labels — NOVA categorizes all foods and beverages into four groups based not on nutritional content, but on the extent and purpose of industrial processing they undergo. This approach recognizes that how food is made matters as much as what ingredients it contains.7

◦ Group 1 includes unprocessed or minimally processed foods like fresh produce, grains, eggs, milk, meat, and fish. These foods may be frozen, dried, or vacuum-packed, but their structure and nutrients remain largely intact.

◦ Group 2 consists of culinary ingredients used in home cooking, such as oils, butter, sugar, salt, and starches, usually extracted from whole foods and used to prepare Group 1 foods.

◦ Group 3 includes traditionally processed foods like canned vegetables, salted fish, cheese, and fresh bread made from flour, water, yeast, and salt. These usually contain a few ingredients and are made using methods like salting, fermentation, or canning.

◦ Group 4, the ultraprocessed category, refers to industrial formulations built from food substances rather than whole foods. These products often contain five or more ingredients, including additives not used in home kitchens, such as hydrogenated oils, high-fructose corn syrup, protein isolates, modified starches, artificial sweeteners, emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, and synthetic flavors and colors.

• Ultraprocessed foods are engineered for convenience, shelf life, and palatability — They’re easy to store and require little or no preparation, but their formulation tends to make them highly palatable and less satisfying, which can make them easy to overconsume. Marketing often highlights convenience or added nutrients while obscuring how deeply the product has been restructured.

• They show up everywhere in daily eating — Common examples include boxed breakfast cereals, sweetened yogurts, flavored chips, packaged snack bars, reconstituted meat products, soft drinks, frozen pizza, shelf-stable sauces, and most commercial baked goods.

Mass-produced breads with refined flours, dough conditioners, emulsifiers, and added sugars fall into this category, as do many plant-based meat substitutes and protein shakes. These products now dominate grocery aisles and contribute a growing share of daily calories worldwide.

• Ultraprocessed foods now dominate the American diet — A study published in Nature Communications found that ultraprocessed foods make up over 73% of the U.S. food supply.8 Another study published in Public Health Nutrition analyzed 2020 grocery purchases by U.S. households and found that the categories with the highest share of ultraprocessed purchases were sodas (90%), mixed dishes and soups (81%), and sweets and snacks (71%).9

These products are not just stripped-down versions of food. Their structure and composition may alter how they interact with your gut, your metabolism, and your immune system. That’s why it’s important to learn not only what ultraprocessed foods lack, but also how they may contribute to chronic health problems. Learn more about their health consequences in “Ultraprocessed Foods Dominate the US Diet and Drive Chronic Disease.”

Simple Steps to Cut Back on Ultraprocessed Foods

If you feel stuck in a loop of eating ultraprocessed foods even though you want to stop, you’re not the only one. However, the answer isn’t self-blame — it’s awareness. Once you understand how these foods manipulate your biology, you regain the power to make conscious choices that truly support your health. Here are practical steps to help you break free:

1. Remove the foods that override your fullness signals — Identify the biggest offenders in your diet and replace them with real foods that require chewing, such as apples, carrots with grass fed cream cheese, or cucumber slices. Slower eating helps your brain register satisfaction.

2. Prioritize real meals over constant snacking — Build your day around three balanced meals with enough protein, healthy carbs, and saturated fat. Think pastured eggs, grass fed beef, wild-caught salmon, or beans paired with vegetables, fruit, or cooked whole grains.

Protein slows digestion and prolongs satiety, while dietary fiber supports gut health by feeding beneficial microbes. Together, they help regulate appetite and reduce the drive to graze between meals.

3. Disrupt the marketing cycle — Companies deliberately use sound, packaging, and visual branding to influence your food choices and reinforce habitual consumption. One of the most effective ways to counter this is to remove processed foods from your immediate environment. Keep them out of the home when possible. If you need to keep certain items, store them in opaque containers to reduce visual triggers.

At the same time, make whole foods more accessible. Move fresh fruit to the front of your refrigerator, keep cut vegetables in clear containers, and place them at eye level. If you have children, take the opportunity to explain how food marketing works, so they begin to recognize how branding and advertising shape desire.

4. Track your progress — Keep a brief journal for 10 days. Note when you reach for ultraprocessed foods, what triggered it, and how you felt afterward. Patterns often reveal emotional or situational triggers you need to address, such as stress or boredom.

Get more tips to reduce your ultraprocessed food intake in “Many Older Adults Today Struggle with Ultraprocessed Food Addiction.”

5 Additional Strategies to Help Protect Your Colorectal Health

If you want to support your colorectal health, the gut is a logical place to start. A well-balanced microbiome and a strong colon lining are foundations of healthy colon function. Below are practical strategies to support your gut, starting with what you eat.

1. Eliminate vegetable oils and packaged foods from your diet — Restaurant meals, fried foods, and most packaged convenience items deliver high amounts of linoleic acid (LA) from industrial seed oils. In excess, this fat may disrupt mitochondrial function and shift the gut environment in ways that favor harmful microbial activity. Replace these foods with fresh, minimally processed meals you prepare yourself.

Use stable fats such as ghee, tallow, or grass fed butter, and keep your LA intake below 5 grams per day. Using the Seed-Oil Sleuth feature in Food Buddy, which is part of my Pax health platform can help you spot hidden vegetable oils that otherwise slip into your diet unnoticed.

2. Support energy production with the right carbohydrates — Your gut and mitochondria rely on a steady supply of glucose to function well. For most adults, that translates to about 250 grams of healthy carbohydrates per day, with higher amounts for very active people.

If your gut is already strained, begin with easier-to-digest sources such as white rice and fruit. This approach provides reliable energy while giving your microbiome room to stabilize before you add more complex carbohydrates.

3. Increase fiber gradually — Fiber nourishes beneficial gut microbes and helps them produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that fuels and protects the colon lining. When the gut is inflamed, large fiber jumps can aggravate symptoms, so pacing matters to allow your gut to heal and build strength without triggering irritation.

Once fruit and white rice are well tolerated, add root vegetables, then expand into cruciferous vegetables, beans, legumes, and whole grains. Cooked-then-cooled potatoes or rice are especially useful because cooling forms resistant starch, a preferred substrate for butyrate-producing bacteria.

4. Add cruciferous vegetables as an everyday staple — After your gut handles carbohydrates comfortably, bring cruciferous vegetables into regular rotation. Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and fermented options like sauerkraut provide compounds that have been studied for their role in supporting the body’s natural detoxification pathways and the health of the colon lining.

Aim for about 40 to 60 grams per day, roughly one-third cup of chopped, cooked broccoli, and rotate different crucifers across the week so your microbes and tissues benefit from a wider range of protective molecules.

5. Reduce toxic load, move daily, and rebuild the microbiome — Environmental exposures from plastics, pesticides, synthetic estrogens, and other toxins may disturb gut balance and encourage less favorable microbial shifts. Practical changes include switching to glass storage, avoiding heating food in plastic, and reducing unnecessary wireless exposure at home when possible.

Daily movement also plays a measurable role. An observational study of 86,252 U.K. Biobank participants who wore activity trackers found that exercising in the morning around 8 a.m. and again around 6 p.m. was associated with an 11% lower colorectal cancer risk, beyond the benefits of overall activity. A single late-day activity peak showed a weaker association that was not statistically significant.10

Antibiotics add another layer of disruption by depleting protective bacteria, so talk with your health care provider about whether they’re clearly necessary, and follow with fermented foods to support recovery. Once your gut health stabilizes, encouraging beneficial strains such as Akkermansia may help maintain the protective mucus layer that lines the colon.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Early-Onset Colorectal Cancer

Q: Do ultraprocessed foods increase my colorectal cancer risk?
A: Research suggests they may. Higher intake of ultraprocessed foods has been linked to early precancerous colorectal growths, some of which can develop into cancer over time. In the JAMA Oncology study, women with the highest ultraprocessed food intake had a 45% higher likelihood of developing conventional adenomas before age 50 compared with those eating the least. Because the study was observational, it shows an association rather than proof of cause.

Q: How much ultraprocessed food is too much for my colon health?
A: The study showed that risk began rising with increased intake and plateaued around seven to eight servings per day. This suggests that even moderate consumption may be associated with higher risk. Beyond eight servings daily, risk did not keep climbing in a straight line, but it remained elevated overall.

Q: What exactly counts as ultraprocessed food?
A: Ultraprocessed foods are industrially formulated products made mostly from refined ingredients and additives not found in home kitchens, such as protein isolates, emulsifiers, flavorings, and artificial sweeteners. Common examples include packaged snacks, sweetened breakfast cereals, reconstituted meats, commercial breads, frozen pizza, and soft drinks.

Q: How do I start cutting ultraprocessed foods out of my diet?
A: Start by identifying and removing foods that override your natural fullness signals. Replace them with real foods that require chewing, like apples or carrots. Build your day around three balanced meals with enough protein, carbs, and saturated fat, and minimize grazing and processed snack intake between meals.

Q: What else can I do to protect my colorectal health?
A: Start by removing vegetable oils from your diet to lower your linoleic acid intake. Eat whole meals with enough protein, fiber, and healthy carbs. Add cruciferous vegetables for detox support, build up fiber slowly to feed protective gut microbes, and avoid environmental toxins where possible. Daily movement and fermented foods may also help support your gut and overall colorectal health.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

According to statistics, there are currently more than 6 million Americans affected by dementia, and it accounts for more than 100,000 related deaths each year.1 Factors that influence the development of dementia include age, alcohol intake, and diabetes.2

With this in mind, studies have shown that the very air you’re breathing may also influence dementia risk. Researchers propose that when toxins floating in the air enter your lungs and reach the bloodstream, they may disrupt the blood-brain barrier and affect brain function over time. Moreover, the effects could be worse with long-term exposure.

Dirty Air Affects Your Brain Health and Increases Dementia Risk

In a meta-analysis published in The Lancet Planetary Health, researchers examined how long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution is associated with the risk of dementia. Starting with 15,619 records, the team narrowed these to 51 eligible studies, 32 of which were pooled in the meta-analyses, with a total study population of 26,180,535 people.3

The participants across all studies are primarily older adults, and the follow-up periods ranged between three to 23 years. Diverse geographical locations were involved, ranging from North America to Europe, Asia, and Oceania, covering both cities and more rural regions. Note that 94% of the included studies were observational cohort studies. Diagnoses of dementia were confirmed using medical records, hospital data, insurance records, or cognitive testing, and in five studies by patient self-report of a physician diagnosis.

• Fine particulate matter goes into your body — Also known as PM2.5, it refers to particles so tiny — smaller than 2.5 micrometers across — that they slip deep into your lungs and enter the bloodstream. The pooled analysis showed that for every increase of 5 micrograms per cubic meter of PM2.5 in the air, dementia risk rose by 8% — pooled from 21 observational studies, with considerable variation between studies.

• While 8% seems small at first, the impact is enormous when entire populations are exposed year after year — For example, nitrogen dioxide, a gas linked to traffic and industrial emissions, was also associated with higher dementia diagnoses.

Each 10 micrograms per cubic meter increase raised risk by about 3%. Black carbon, a major component of soot, carried an even stronger effect — a 13% increase in risk for every microgram per cubic meter (from six studies with very high between-study variation).

• The review found no clear signal for larger particles and gases — Only four studies looked at PM10, and their results scattered widely, pointing anywhere from slightly lower risk to nearly triple the risk. When a range is that wide, it means there isn’t enough evidence to say either way. It is not a finding that larger particles are harmless.

• Combing through the nuances in the data — The research also looked at subgroups. Interestingly, the effect of PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide, and black carbon tended to be higher for vascular dementia compared to Alzheimer’s disease, though the differences were not statistically significant.

The authors also note that most contributing studies did not make a pathological diagnosis of either subtype, so these groupings need to be treated as provisional. For context, vascular dementia develops when blood vessels in the brain are damaged, limiting blood flow and leading to strokes or ministrokes.

• Disease risk builds across a long timeframe — Many of the studies tracked people for more than a decade, showing that the risk from pollution isn’t immediate but grows steadily across years of exposure. This means the earlier you take steps to reduce exposure, the more protection you give your brain.

• How air pollutants may trigger changes inside your body — Researchers noted that studies of dogs living in heavily polluted cities found metal accumulating along the olfactory tract, suggesting the nose may be a point of entry for fine particles. From there, particles are proposed to activate your microglia — special immune cells in the brain — into a state of chronic activation.

This creates a cycle of inflammation, oxidative stress, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. Over time, this toxic environment is thought to encourage the buildup of amyloid plaques, the sticky proteins that are a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease. That said, the authors describe neuroinflammation and oxidative stress as an active area of research rather than a settled pathway.

• The study also reviewed indirect pathways leading to neuronal disease — When you breathe polluted air, inflammatory chemicals are released in the lungs. These travel through the bloodstream and trigger immune responses elsewhere, including the brain.

In mouse models, ozone exposure upregulated proteins such as HMGB1, which impaired the protective microglial response and reduced the ability of microglia to clear out harmful waste, leading to accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques. Whether the same sequence occurs in people has not been established.

• Lower-income countries generally have worse air pollution — Most of the studies included in the analysis come from high-income countries, and the researchers noted that marginalized communities often face much higher pollution exposure.

The authors note that the study populations were predominantly high-income and predominantly white, which limits how far these results generalize to other social, cultural, and geographical settings.

• A call for better air quality from a legislative perspective — The researchers emphasized that stricter air quality standards could help lower dementia rates and would likely bring broad social and economic benefits.

• What the authors say about the limits of this evidence — The review rates its overall certainty of evidence as moderate, reports considerable variation between studies for every pollutant except nitrogen oxides, and notes evidence of publication bias. Exposure was modeled from home addresses rather than measured personally. Most importantly, in the one pooled multipollutant model available, the PM2.5 association was no longer statistically significant once nitrogen dioxide was controlled for.

Fine Particle Exposure Linked to Brain Aneurysm Rupture

In a study published in npj Clean Air, researchers investigated whether exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). For those unfamiliar, this is a type of stroke caused by the rupture of a brain aneurysm, often leading to sudden bleeding in the space around the brain. The condition is devastating, with high rates of death and long-term disability among survivors.4

Unlike past studies that looked only at short-term exposure in the days before rupture, this featured study widened the time window to explore if repeated exposure months before the event contributed to risk. The study population included 70 adult patients admitted with aSAH to the University of Utah Hospital over a five-year period. The average age was 58 years old, and 72% of the population were women. This was a single-center, retrospective analysis — a design that can identify patterns but cannot establish cause.

• Going back further supports the hypothesis — Researchers collected pollution data from monitoring stations located near each patient’s home and matched it with weather information, such as barometric pressure and temperature, to control outside influences.

What they discovered was striking — it wasn’t the pollution in the days or weeks before the aneurysm ruptured that mattered, but the levels recorded three to six months earlier.

• It takes months of exposure to create problems — The team found that elevated PM2.5 exposure during the 90 to 180 days before rupture was associated with roughly twice the risk of an aneurysm breaking open.

In those months of heavier exposure, ruptures were roughly twice as common. But the range around that figure was wide — the real effect could be anything from barely an increase to almost four times higher, and the pattern flips in the three months right before a rupture. In that window, higher PM2.5 went with a lower rupture rate rather than a higher one, which the authors said they could not fully explain.

Their working idea is that fine particles do their damage slowly rather than all at once, gradually weakening blood vessel walls over months — but a study built this way cannot confirm it.

• Geography influences risk — In the study, researchers noted that the Intermountain West, and particularly Utah’s Wasatch Front, experience cyclical air pollution. In the summer, wildfires bring in smoke, while in the winter, thermal inversions trap pollution near the valley floor. These regular patterns created natural spikes of PM2.5 levels. Researchers observed that recurring clusters of ruptures were often seen three to six months after these spikes.

• Barometric pressure was another key factor — The analysis showed that on days when atmospheric pressure was higher, the risk of rupture almost doubled regardless of pollution levels. Pressure and particulate exposure were assessed as separate factors in this analysis. The study did not test whether the two interact.

• The researchers hypothesized several mechanisms to explain the delayed effect — PM2.5 is known to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), damaging deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and cell structures. Over months, this repeated assault, coupled with impaired DNA repair processes, may weaken the cells that line blood vessels in the brain.

Inflammatory cascades, meaning waves of immune chemicals released in response to toxins, are proposed to further degrade vessel walls. The result is a fragile aneurysm that is far more likely to rupture under stress.

• The sensitivity of aneurysm risk is noteworthy — The study noted that small factors like daily use of anti-inflammatory medications or exposure to sunlight, which has a mild anti-inflammatory effect, have also been linked to differences in rupture risk. This reinforces the notion that vessel walls in the brain are highly responsive to both environmental toxins and protective modalities.
• What the authors say about the limits of this evidence — The authors describe this as a single-center, retrospective study of 70 patients and state that larger-scale studies are needed. They also note that sampling bias cannot be excluded, because only a portion of aSAH cases in the geographic area were captured, and that patient travel or relocation during the exposure windows could not be accounted for.

How to Protect Your Brain from Air Pollution

Based on the findings discussed above, poor air quality, especially chronic exposure to it, has been associated with poorer brain health outcomes. That said, the practical lever you control is your own exposure. If moving to a new home is not an option, here are six strategies to make your air as safe as possible:

1. Keep your indoor air clean — Your home is a sanctuary where you can give your body a break from toxins. With this in mind, I recommend investing in air purifiers equipped with high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, since they trap fine particles.

In addition, close doors and windows when air pollution is heavy — like during traffic surges — and let the purifier run throughout the day. Swapping out the filters on schedule is key, because only a fresh filter keeps your air as clean as possible.

2. Limit contact with outdoor pollution — Stay updated on daily air quality updates in your area. When pollution levels rise, cut back on outdoor time. Rush hour is usually the worst for pollutants, so avoid exercising, running errands, or spending long stretches outside during those periods. By timing your outdoor activities carefully, you can lower the amount of air pollution you inhale.

3. Air out your home safely — Fresh air inside your home is important, but you don’t want to bring in dirty outdoor air during high-pollution days. The best approach is to open your windows briefly — about 15 minutes a day — when the outside air is cleaner. Even in colder months, this strategy helps cycle out stale indoor air without inviting in a wave of airborne pollutants.

4. Cut down on indoor pollution sources — Many household items silently fill your air with harmful chemicals. Products like synthetic air fresheners, scented candles, cleaning sprays, and incense all contribute to poor indoor air.

Instead, choose unscented, natural cleaning solutions, and skip the scented candles as often as possible. Each small swap lowers the toxic load in your home.

5. Make your bedroom a clean-air zone — Sleep is an important cornerstone of optimal health because it’s the time your body repairs and restores itself. Thus, the air you’re breathing in your bedroom throughout this entire period matters.

Get rid of rugs that trap dust or clean them often if you plan on keeping them. Next, purchase bedding made with organic cotton, and place an air purifier right next to your bed. Breathing cleaner air at night supports deeper rest and helps your body heal more efficiently.

6. Push for cleaner environments where you live — While the steps outlined above will help, you can only do so much on your end. For real, lasting clean air, it’s important to create a grassroots, community-level movement aimed at cutting air pollution. That means speaking up for stricter pollution controls and campaigning for local clean-air initiatives.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Air Pollution and Dementia

Q: How does air pollution increase the risk of dementia?
A: Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and other pollutants enter the body through the lungs, travel into the bloodstream, and reach the brain. Researchers propose that once there they contribute to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress and disrupt the blood-brain barrier.

Over years of exposure, this environment may encourage amyloid plaque buildup, though the mechanism has not been established in humans. What the pooled human evidence shows is an association between long-term exposure and higher dementia risk.

Q: Which air pollutants are most harmful to brain health?
A: The most consistently associated with dementia risk are PM2.5, nitrogen dioxide, and black carbon. Research shows that for every 5 micrograms per cubic meter increase in PM2.5, dementia risk rose by 8%. Nitrogen dioxide exposure increased risk by 3% per 10 micrograms, while black carbon raised risk by 13% per microgram.

The review found no clear association for larger particles like PM10 or gases such as ozone, though it notes these pools included few studies and imprecise estimates, which is not the same as showing they are harmless.

Q: Does air pollution also affect other brain conditions besides dementia?
A: Yes. A study published in npj Clean Air — a single-center retrospective analysis of 70 patients — found that elevated long-term PM2.5 exposure was associated with roughly twice the risk of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (a type of brain aneurysm rupture). The danger wasn’t from pollution the day of rupture but from exposure three to six months earlier, which the authors suggest may reflect a gradual weakening of blood vessels — a hypothesis this study design cannot confirm.

Q: Who is most at risk from pollution-related brain disease?
A: Older adults are most vulnerable. Marginalized and low-income communities are also at high risk since they are often exposed to dirtier air and fewer protective regulations.

Q: What steps can I take to protect my brain from air pollution?
A: Here are five strategies to help improve air quality in your immediate vicinity:

1. Use HEPA air purifiers indoors and keep windows closed on high-pollution days.
2. Limit outdoor activity during poor air quality periods, especially during rush hours or wildfires.
3. Ventilate your home briefly with cleaner outdoor air when conditions allow. Opening your windows for 15 minutes a day is enough to let fresh air inside.
4. Cut down on indoor pollution sources like chemical cleaners and scented candles.
5. Make your bedroom a clean-air zone with organic bedding, fewer dust-trapping rugs, and a purifier running at night.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Editor’s Note: This article is a reprint. It was originally published January 3, 2026.

Chronic stress leaves a clear imprint on your brain, and the effects reach far deeper than feeling overwhelmed or emotionally drained. It disrupts the very systems responsible for mood, motivation, and mental clarity, pushing your brain into a state where resilience becomes harder to access. When this pressure builds day after day, the result is a predictable shift toward low mood, irritability, loss of interest, and a growing sense that you’re running on fumes.

These changes aren’t signs of weakness — they’re biological signals that your stress circuitry is overheating. What often goes unnoticed is how this process reshapes your brain at a chemical level. Stress doesn’t stay confined to thoughts or emotions; it alters the pathways that govern inflammation, energy production, and emotional regulation.

As this internal pressure rises, it disrupts sleep, strains memory, and blunts your ability to rebound from everyday challenges. Left unaddressed, chronic stress gradually pulls you into patterns that resemble clinical depression, complete with exhaustion, cognitive slowdown, and emotional withdrawal. That said, progesterone appears to interact with this overloaded system.

Going deeper into this premise, progesterone may temper cortisol-driven stress chemistry, support your brain’s natural calming pathways, and help maintain metabolic stability. This points to an important idea: The biology underlying depression-like states may not be fixed — it appears to respond to specific signals, and progesterone is one researchers are actively studying. Research also reveals how stress alters your brain — and how progesterone helps restore balance.

Progesterone Reduced Stress-Triggered Brain Inflammation in Rats

A study published in Behavioural Brain Research investigated how chronic unpredictable mild stress affects brain function and mood.1 Researchers exposed male Sprague-Dawley rats (six per group) to six weeks of shifting stressors followed by two weeks of progesterone treatment, to determine how stress alters inflammation, behavior, and specific biochemical pathways tied to depression. This model is widely used because it reliably produces the same emotional and behavioral changes seen in human depression, including loss of interest, reduced movement, and withdrawal.

• Stress-exposed animals developed clear depression-like symptoms — The study population consisted of healthy rats that were gradually pushed into a depressed state by repeated stress exposure, creating a controlled way to observe the biological fallout of chronic stress.
The rats showed reduced motivation, impaired pleasure response, and dramatic drops in physical activity — clear indicators of a stress-induced mood disruption. These changes suggest that stress-related mood disruption has a measurable biological component — in this model, one closely tied to inflammation in the brain.*
• Progesterone improved behavior and restored motivation — Progesterone restored normal behavior after stress exposure, with the rats showing renewed interest in rewarding activities and healthier movement patterns.2 This improvement suggests that, in this model, progesterone acted on the inflammatory signaling associated with the behavioral changes rather than on behavior alone.
• Inflammation markers dropped sharply with progesterone treatment — The progesterone-treated group experienced major reductions in inflammatory cytokines — specifically, two molecules measured in blood serum, interleukin-1 beta, and tumor necrosis factor alpha, which rise during chronic stress and have been linked in other research to mood, memory, and sleep. Note that these were serum measurements rather than direct measures of brain inflammation, and whether comparable reductions produce clearer thinking or steadier emotions in people was not tested here.
• The study measured fast, measurable biological changes — Within the study window, progesterone reduced inflammatory markers and depression-like behavior over a two-week treatment period. How quickly a comparable response might occur in humans has not been established.
The researchers showed that progesterone suppressed the NLRP3 inflammasome, a molecular alarm system that senses danger signals and triggers inflammatory cascades in the brain. The researchers propose that limiting this pathway may be part of how progesterone influenced the animals’ behavior.
• Progesterone turns down the “ignition switch” for inflammation — The study found that progesterone lowered caspase-1, an enzyme that converts inactive cytokines into active, inflammation-producing compounds. In simple terms, progesterone dampened a biochemical switch involved in turning on inflammation.
According to the findings, progesterone reversed inflammatory changes in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex — areas tied to memory, emotional balance, and decision-making. Whether easing inflammation in these regions produces those changes in humans was not tested in this study.

*These findings are from laboratory or animal research and may not directly apply to human health.

Multiple Proposed Pathways for Progesterone’s Effects on Stress-Driven Depression — A Commentary

In a commentary on the Behavioural Brain Research study, bioenergetic researcher Georgi Dinkov argues that chronic stress — not “depression genes” — is a primary driver of the development of depressive symptoms.3 He presents natural bioidentical progesterone as a candidate warranting further study in stress-induced depression. Keep in mind that his observations are an independent analysis published on the author’s personal blog, not peer-reviewed research.

In the study, progesterone improved the rats’ depression-like behaviors, including the reduced sucrose preference researchers use as a measure of anhedonia — the inability to feel pleasure — which is among the hardest symptoms to address in people.

Many people are told progesterone worsens mood, especially postpartum, even though progesterone levels drop sharply after pregnancy. These findings offer a counterpoint to that view, though the featured research I will review later also describes conditions under which progesterone metabolites may increase rather than reduce anxiety.

• Effective dosing matters for restoring normal mood and behavior — Dinkov highlights that the human-equivalent dose in the study was about 1 milligram (mg) per kilogram (kg) daily for two weeks, used after the rats already displayed depression-like behavior.
Higher doses offered no added benefit, while lower doses were less effective. This pattern suggests the effects observed followed a partially dose-dependent curve. This figure is a calculated animal-to-human equivalence from a rodent study, not a clinical dosing recommendation, and it differs from the transmucosal dosing described later.
• Progesterone may act on the inflammation that chronic stress creates in the nervous system — The commentary explains that chronic stress drives inflammation in your brain and proposes that this inflammation — rather than serotonin imbalance — is a major contributor to depression.
Progesterone lowered key inflammatory signals both in the nervous system and throughout the body. This reduction is of particular interest where stress symptoms include brain fog, emotional heaviness, or a “shut-down” feeling that matches stress-related inflammation.
• Progesterone may blunt cortisol signaling (a proposed contributor to depression) and influence cortisol metabolism — Dinkov emphasizes that progesterone acts as a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, which means it directly blocks excess cortisol from exerting its harmful effects. It also inhibits an enzyme that increases cortisol and activates another enzyme that breaks cortisol down. These combined actions are proposed to lower cortisol production and increase cortisol deactivation.
• Progesterone activates calming GABA pathways that may help steady mood and quiet internal tension — The commentary highlights that progesterone is a strong GABA agonist, strengthening your brain’s main calming system. GABA-supporting compounds have been studied in depression, and progesterone’s activity on this pathway is one proposed explanation for its reported effects on anxious thinking, emotional reactivity, and stress-driven irritability.
Dinkov notes that progesterone also promotes thyroid activity, especially T3-related metabolic pathways. Pro-thyroid signals have been studied in depression, which in his view, would mean progesterone acts not only through cortisol and inflammation but also by influencing whole-body energy production.
• How progesterone’s proposed mechanisms compare with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) — The commentary explains that antidepressant SSRIs appear to work — when they work at all — because they lower inflammatory biomarkers, not because they increase serotonin.
Dinkov argues progesterone may act on inflammation while also influencing cortisol, GABA, and thyroid pathways. However, no head-to-head trials have compared progesterone with SSRIs for depression, so this is mechanistic reasoning rather than clinical evidence. That said, if you’re currently taking an antidepressant, do not stop or change the dosing schedule without guidance from the clinician who prescribed it.

Progesterone Shapes How Your Brain Processes Emotion Across Your Lifetime

A related review published in Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology examined how progesterone receptors throughout your brain influence emotional processing, stress response, and cognitive function across puberty, the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, postpartum, and menopause.4

The review sought to map out when and where progesterone affects the female brain, and how those shifting effects explain changes in mood, emotional sensitivity, and resilience throughout life. By understanding these patterns, you gain a clearer picture of why your emotional experience changes across hormonal transitions — and how to work with your biology instead of feeling blindsided by it.

• There are distinct patterns of progesterone effects in healthy females of different ages — The authors focused on healthy women experiencing normal hormonal transitions and documented how emotional reactivity, memory performance, and stress sensitivity shift as progesterone levels rise or fall. This shows that mood changes are not character flaws — they’re biological signals tied to hormone receptor activity in brain regions that regulate emotion, fear, reward, and social processing.
• Moderate progesterone enhances emotional sensitivity, while higher levels shift your brain toward a calmer, more inhibited state — Amygdala activity — a brain region involved in processing emotion and threat — is influenced in a dose-dependent pattern.
At moderate levels, progesterone increases amygdala reactivity, heightening emotional awareness and sensitivity to social cues. At higher levels, it inhibits amygdala activity, creating a more muted, stabilizing emotional tone. This gives you an explanation for why certain phases of the menstrual cycle feel emotionally “louder,” while others feel more inward or subdued.
• Changes in progesterone shape memory and how you interpret emotional events — Progesterone affects hippocampal pathways tied to memory formation and the emotional coloring of memories. This means progesterone influences how you store and recall emotionally charged experiences. The review reports reduced amygdala activity during memory tasks alongside lower recognition accuracy after progesterone administration, which the authors suggest may relate to the cognitive complaints some women report during pregnancy.
• Healthy emotional regulation depends on how well progesterone receptors communicate with stress circuits — The researchers describe how progesterone receptor activation interacts with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis — your brain’s stress-control system — to influence your threshold for overwhelm, irritability, and emotional exhaustion.
When receptor activity is efficient, your brain handles stress with more flexibility and quicker recovery. When the signaling is disrupted, stress feels heavier and harder to shake.
• Progesterone metabolites create rapid calming effects through GABA receptors — The review explains that progesterone’s metabolites directly modulate GABA receptors, producing fast-acting effects on emotional stability, anxiety levels, and sleep quality. The relationship is not linear — the authors describe an inverted U-shaped pattern in which allopregnanolone appears calming at both low and high levels but may increase anxiety at intermediate levels.
This is different from the longer-term metabolic effects discussed in earlier sections — here, the focus is on moment-to-moment emotional regulation. This means your internal sense of calm may depend in part on how efficiently progesterone metabolites activate these receptors.

Strengthening Your Brain’s Stress Resilience

Your next step is putting this information into action in a way that restores balance to your brain, lowers the stress load that triggered the problem in the first place, and supports the hormonal and metabolic pathways that keep your mood steady.

You’ve already seen how stress appears to flip specific inflammatory switches and how progesterone may support healthier signaling. Now, it’s about giving your brain the environment it needs to shift out of survival mode and into repair mode. Think of this as your personal blueprint for rebuilding emotional strength from the inside out.

1. Lower your daily stress load so your brain stops triggering inflammatory pathways — If you push through the day without breaks, your brain stays locked in a stress response that disrupts mood circuits. Instead, create small recovery points throughout your day — 60 seconds of slow breathing, stepping outside for fresh air, or pausing screens for a moment.
These short resets may help ease your nervous system out of “alarm mode,” which research suggests may lower the inflammatory pressure associated with low mood, irritability, and emotional overwhelm.
2. Add healthy carbs and regular exercise to support your body’s natural antidepressant systems — If you’re eating too few carbohydrates, your body raises cortisol just to produce enough glucose to keep you functioning. Over time, this drives tension, low mood, and accelerated aging. Including healthy carbs — about 250 grams daily — helps lower cortisol naturally.
Focus on fruits and white rice first if your gut is unhealthy, then gradually add root vegetables, non-starchy vegetables, starchy vegetables like sweet potatoes, and finally minimally processed whole grains.
Movement is just as important. Exercise releases endorphins, improves emotional resilience, lowers cortisol, and strengthens your sleep quality. If you haven’t been active, start now — even light or moderate movement like walking shifts your brain into a healthier, more adaptive stress rhythm. For guidance on structuring your training, “Nailing the Sweet Spots for Exercise Volume” is a great resource to help you build a sustainable regimen.
3. Create hormonal stability by removing stressors — If you feel emotionally volatile during hormonal shifts, reducing things that burden your hormonal system — like chronic sleep loss, extreme dieting, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, or excessive endurance exercise — helps your brain respond more evenly. Your hormonal system is sensitive to lifestyle strain. By lightening that load, you support your natural progesterone rhythm and give your nervous system a smoother emotional baseline.
4. Build emotional buffering into your daily routine — If you feel like small things set you off, your brain’s calming circuits are overloaded. You can strengthen them with relaxing activities that naturally engage GABA pathways — slow rhythmic movement, warm baths, soothing music, or journaling before bed. These habits teach your brain to shift into the same calm, steady state described in the research. You’re training your nervous system the way you would train a muscle.
5. Discuss progesterone with your clinician if cortisol appears to be part of your picture — The featured research and Dinkov’s commentary above describe progesterone as a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, which is why it is being studied in relation to excess cortisol and the adrenaline-driven “on edge” feeling that wears people down.
Reported effects include steadier mood, deeper sleep, and easier physical relaxation, though individual responses vary and these outcomes are not guaranteed. As noted below, transmucosal progesterone therapy requires a prescription, so this is a conversation to have with a qualified health care provider rather than a regimen to begin on your own.

FAQs About Chronic Stress, Depression, and Progesterone

Q: Why does chronic stress lead to depression?
A: Chronic stress disrupts the systems that control your mood, motivation, and cognitive sharpness. It is associated with inflammation inside your brain, interferes with healthy energy production and keeps your stress circuits stuck in “on” mode. Over time, this is linked with low mood, irritability, emotional withdrawal, and exhaustion — not because something is “wrong with you,” but because your biology may be locked into a stress-driven inflammatory state.

Q: How does progesterone appear to affect stress-induced depression?
A: Progesterone appears to act on the chemical cascade that stress creates. Research and additional commentary by bioenergetic researcher Georgi Dinkov describe its lowering cortisol activity, acting at calming GABA pathways, reducing inflammatory signaling, and supporting metabolic stability. In addition, it’s proposed that these combined effects may help restore emotional balance, mood, sleep, and clear thinking, though the strongest evidence here comes from animal research.

Q: What did the Behavioral Brain Research study reveal about progesterone?
A: The study showed that male rats exposed to chronic stress developed strong depression-like symptoms — and progesterone significantly reduced them.5 It improved behavior and motivation, lowered inflammatory markers, and dampened the NLRP3 alarm pathway the researchers link to depression-like states. The improvements occurred over a two-week treatment window in animals; comparable human results have not been established.

Q: What did Georgi Dinkov add to our understanding of progesterone and stress?
A: Dinkov emphasized that stress — not genetics — is a primary driver of depression and that progesterone directly counteracts the physiological changes behind it. He highlighted how progesterone blocks cortisol at its receptors, improves cortisol metabolism, supports thyroid function, and amplifies your brain’s calming chemistry. These proposed actions are why he considers natural progesterone worth further study as a multi-pathway approach. Note that his commentary is an independent analysis rather than peer-reviewed research.

Q: Besides progesterone, what else helps stabilize mood and reduce stress-related depression?
A: Healthy carbohydrates and regular movement work together to help lower cortisol and support a more resilient stress response. Eating enough natural carbs prevents cortisol from rising just to produce glucose, while exercise boosts endorphins, improves sleep, and strengthens emotional resilience. These habits give your brain the metabolic support it needs to stay balanced, especially when paired with progesterone.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Depression goes beyond a rough week. It shows up as persistent sadness, lost interest in things you once enjoyed, disrupted sleep, shifting appetite, low energy and a foggy inability to concentrate — and it doesn’t lift on its own after a few days. As it progresses, it affects your relationships, your ability to work, your physical health and, in the most severe cases, increases your risk of suicide.

The World Health Organization estimates that about 350 million people worldwide live with depression, and even with modern treatment, only about half of people respond well to antidepressant medications or psychotherapy.1 Many who do improve struggle with side effects such as weight gain, fatigue, sleep disturbances and cognitive problems.

That gap between how many people need help and how well current treatments deliver it is exactly why researchers have been testing approaches that improve symptoms without adding another prescription, including one that combines two familiar practices: yoga and heat. Heated yoga takes place in a room warmed to roughly 90 to 105 degrees Fahrenheit, where structured postures and breathing exercises place greater demands on both your body and mind.

Previous research has shown benefits from traditional yoga on its own and from whole-body hyperthermia, a treatment that deliberately raises body temperature under controlled conditions.2 Heated yoga combines physical movement, controlled breathing, mindfulness and sustained warmth in a single session, but the question has been whether this combination delivers measurable relief for people living with clinical depression.

Researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital and collaborating institutions tested heated yoga in a rigorous clinical trial, then published their findings in two stages. The first publication established whether the intervention worked under real-world conditions and whether people would actually stick with it.

The second, published in 2026, went deeper into the same trial data to answer a follow-up question: does attending more classes lead to greater improvement? Because both analyses draw from the same 80-participant trial, their findings reinforce each other rather than simply repeating the same conclusions.

Heated Yoga Reduced Depression Symptoms Under Real-World Conditions

The original publication from this trial focused on the question researchers needed to answer first — whether heated yoga was practical enough for people with depression to follow through on, and whether it produced meaningful results under everyday conditions. Published in The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, the study enrolled 80 adults who were randomly assigned to either an eight-week heated yoga program or an eight-week waitlist before researchers compared changes in clinician-rated depression scores.3

Unlike tightly controlled laboratory studies, this trial evaluated heated yoga as people would actually experience it in everyday life. Participants continued their usual medical care, including antidepressant medications when applicable, allowing researchers to determine whether heated yoga offered additional benefits alongside standard treatment. Attendance rates and participant feedback also demonstrated that most people found the program practical enough to incorporate into their weekly routines.

• More than half the participants achieved a major reduction in depression symptoms — Researchers defined a treatment response as at least a 50% reduction in depression symptoms using a standardized clinician assessment. By the end of eight weeks, 59.3% of participants in the heated yoga group reached that milestone compared with only 6.3% of those assigned to the waitlist.

Researchers also measured remission, meaning symptoms improved enough that participants no longer met the criteria for active depression.

Twelve participants in the heated yoga group achieved remission compared with just two in the waitlist group. Overall, clinician-rated depression scores improved substantially more in the heated yoga group, with statistical analysis showing a large treatment effect rather than a small or borderline difference.

• Participants benefited even without perfect attendance — Volunteers were encouraged to attend at least two heated yoga classes each week during the eight-week program. In reality, participants attended an average of 10.3 classes over the entire study, or just over one class per week.4 Even though attendance fell below the recommended schedule, the heated yoga group still experienced significantly greater reductions in depression symptoms than the waitlist group.

Only 36% of participants completed 12 or more classes, yet the overall results remained strongly positive. These findings suggest that building a consistent routine matters more than maintaining perfect attendance, making heated yoga a realistic option for people balancing work, family and other responsibilities.

At the same time, the dose-response findings from the extended analysis5 showed that participants who attended more classes experienced greater reductions in depression symptoms throughout the program. Taken together, these results deliver a clear and encouraging message: even one class per week produced meaningful improvement, and attending two or more classes per week produced even more.

• The improvements were seen in a broad group of adults — The average participant was 32.7 years old, and more than 81% were women, but researchers found no meaningful differences between the study groups before treatment that could explain the results. Participants also represented different racial and ethnic backgrounds, making the findings more reflective of patients seen in community practice.

Because volunteers continued taking antidepressants and receiving other existing treatments throughout the trial, the results indicate that heated yoga complemented standard care rather than replacing it. Classes also took place in community heated yoga studios instead of specialized research facilities, showing that the intervention closely resembled what many people could realistically access where they live.

• The study demonstrated that people were willing to stick with the program — One of the investigators’ primary goals was to determine whether adults with moderate to severe depression would participate in a physically demanding heated yoga program for eight weeks. The favorable attendance rates and positive participant experiences showed that the program was practical and well accepted.

Rather than evaluating an approach that only succeeds under ideal research conditions, the study demonstrated that heated yoga fit into everyday life while still delivering meaningful reductions in depression symptoms.

More Hot Yoga Classes Led to Greater Reductions in Depression Symptoms

In the 2026 analysis published in the Journal of Affective Disorders, the researchers examined whether the total number of classes attended influenced how much participants improved.6 To answer that question, they combined data from both groups during the periods when participants actually practiced heated yoga, allowing them to evaluate the relationship between attendance and recovery across everyone who received the intervention.

• Depression symptoms fell substantially over the eight-week program — Among the 65 participants who completed follow-up assessments, clinician-rated depression scores decreased by an average of about 13 points on a 0-84 depression scale, representing a meaningful reduction in symptom severity over just eight weeks.

• The benefits were similar regardless of age, sex, education or antidepressant use — Younger and older adults improved by similar amounts, as did men and women and people with different levels of education.7 Participants who were already taking antidepressant medications experienced about the same degree of improvement as those who were not taking medication. These findings suggest that hot yoga benefited a broad range of adults instead of helping only one specific type of patient.

• Every additional class built on the progress from the previous one — Researchers found that participants continued experiencing greater reductions in depression symptoms as they attended more hot yoga classes. Rather than reaching a point where additional sessions no longer made a difference, improvements continued throughout the entire eight-week program.

This finding suggests that consistency matters — sticking with the program produced greater benefits than attending only a few classes.

• The study provides strong evidence while identifying important next steps — This research used one of the strongest study designs available for evaluating an intervention. Combining data from both treatment periods also gave investigators a wider range of attendance patterns to analyze. However, only 65 participants completed the follow-up assessments included in this analysis, and the intervention lasted just eight weeks.

Because participants weren’t randomly assigned to attend different numbers of classes, researchers can’t say with certainty that every additional class alone caused the extra improvement, even though the relationship was strong. Future studies involving larger groups of participants and longer follow-up periods will help determine the ideal amount of hot yoga needed to achieve the greatest reduction in depression symptoms.

• Researchers are already testing whether heat makes yoga even more effective — Building on the encouraging results of this trial, principal investigator Maren Nyer and her colleagues at Massachusetts General Hospital have launched a larger randomized study comparing heated yoga directly with non-heated yoga in 120 adults with depression.8

Participants will attend at least two classes each week during an eight-week program while researchers track changes in mood over a 20-week study period. By comparing the two approaches head-to-head, the investigators hope to determine whether the heated environment provides additional benefits beyond yoga itself.

If both approaches prove effective, the findings could strengthen the case for expanding access to yoga-based treatments for depression, including broader insurance coverage.

Build a Routine That Supports a Healthier Mood

The heated yoga research showed that consistent movement in a supportive environment reduced depression symptoms, even when participants fell short of the recommended schedule. That finding carries an important implication beyond yoga itself: your body responds to regular physical activity, and the benefits grow when you pair that movement with habits that support your brain, metabolism, gut health and sleep.

The following steps help you build a routine that amplifies the kind of gains the study participants experienced.

1. Choose exercise you enjoy and vary your routine — The research in this article showed that heated yoga is an effective way to reduce depression symptoms, especially when practiced consistently. If you enjoy heated yoga and it’s available where you live, it’s an excellent addition to your routine because it combines physical activity, controlled breathing and mindfulness in a single session.

At the same time, you don’t need to limit yourself to one type of exercise. Mixing activities such as heated or traditional yoga, brisk walking, cycling, swimming and strength training challenges your body in different ways, keeps exercise interesting and helps prevent boredom from derailing your progress.

I encourage you to choose activities you genuinely enjoy and rotate them throughout the week. Multiple studies have found that exercise reduces depression symptoms as effectively as antidepressant medication for many adults, without the burden of prescription side effects.9 So, the best exercise plan is one you look forward to doing and can maintain for years.

2. Build your fitness gradually instead of trying to do everything at once — Depression often drains your motivation before you even begin. That’s why starting small is so important. Begin with 10 to 15 minutes of movement each day, then slowly increase your time or intensity over the following weeks. Small victories build confidence, and confidence makes the next workout easier.

As your energy improves, add two or three weekly sessions of strength training or another activity you enjoy. Strength training helps preserve muscle, improves metabolic health and gives you visible signs of progress that reinforce your commitment. Aim to finish most workouts feeling energized rather than completely exhausted. If you regularly feel wiped out, dread your next workout or need hours to recover, reduce the intensity and build back up more gradually.

3. Support your brain by improving cellular energy production — Exercise delivers its greatest benefits when your brain has the fuel it needs to function properly. I recommend eating enough carbohydrates to support healthy metabolism — roughly 250 grams each day for most adults, with higher amounts if you’re especially active. Build those carbohydrates around whole fruit and other well-tolerated foods instead of ultraprocessed products.

Keep your protein intake adequate — aim for about 0.8 grams of protein per pound of lean body mass (or 1.76 grams per kilogram), with one-third coming from collagen-rich sources like slow-cooked meats or bone broth. At the same time, eliminate seed oils such as soybean, corn, sunflower, safflower and canola oil. These oils contain excessive linoleic acid (LA), a polyunsaturated fat that accumulates in your tissues and interferes with healthy mitochondrial function.

Mitochondria are the tiny structures inside your cells that produce the energy your brain depends on for mood, motivation and focus. I recommend keeping LA intake below 5 grams per day, with an ideal target closer to 2 grams. If you want an easy way to monitor your intake, the Pax health platform, coming soon, will include Food Buddy and the Seed Oil Sleuth. This is a special feature designed to help identify hidden sources of LA in your diet as well as estimate the total daily intake.

4. Improve your gut health and your body clock together — Your digestive system and your brain constantly exchange signals through nerves, hormones and your immune system. When your gut becomes unhealthy, inflammation rises and those signals begin working against you instead of for you. Supporting digestive health helps create a better environment for emotional resilience.

I recommend eating enough carbohydrates to support healthy energy production while choosing foods that match your digestive tolerance. Pair that with 10 to 20 minutes of outdoor sunlight shortly after waking each morning. Early sunlight helps reset your circadian rhythm — your body’s internal clock that regulates sleep, hormones, energy production and mood. Better sleep strengthens your emotional resilience, improves recovery from exercise and makes healthy habits easier to maintain.

5. Give your nervous system time to recover every day — Depression often leaves your body stuck in a chronic stress response. While movement helps interrupt that cycle, recovery matters just as much as exercise itself. Heated yoga naturally includes slow, controlled breathing that encourages your nervous system to shift away from a constant fight-or-flight state, but you can practice slow breathing during any type of exercise or even while sitting quietly at home.
Support that calming response throughout the day by keeping a consistent sleep schedule, limiting bright artificial light after sunset and creating a relaxing bedtime routine. If you continue to struggle with restlessness or poor sleep, supplemental GABA, typically 500 milligrams (mg) to 2,000 mg (2 grams) daily, often supports relaxation and sleep quality. Lower doses around 100 mg have also shown benefits.

Combining GABA with L-theanine, an amino acid found naturally in tea, further enhances these calming effects because L-theanine works through many of the same pathways that help quiet an overactive nervous system. Together, these habits create the conditions your brain and body need to restore healthy mood, steady energy and long-term resilience.

FAQs About Heated Yoga for Depression

Q: Does hot yoga really help reduce depression symptoms?
A: Yes. A randomized controlled trial found that adults with moderate to severe depression experienced significantly greater reductions in depression symptoms after participating in a heated yoga program than those assigned to a waitlist. More than half of the participants achieved at least a 50% reduction in symptoms, and many improved enough that they no longer met the criteria for active depression.

Q: Do I have to attend every class to see benefits?
A: No. Participants were encouraged to attend two classes each week, but the average person attended just over one class weekly and still experienced meaningful improvements. The research also showed that the more classes people attended, the greater their reduction in depression symptoms, making consistency more important than perfect attendance.

Q: Does hot yoga work if I’m already taking antidepressants?
A: The research suggests it does. Participants who were taking antidepressant medications improved by about the same amount as those who weren’t taking medication. Rather than replacing standard treatment, heated yoga appeared to provide additional benefits alongside the care participants were already receiving.

Q: Is heated yoga the only type of exercise that helps depression?
A: No. The studies focused specifically on heated yoga, but regular exercise of many kinds has been shown to reduce depression symptoms. If heated yoga appeals to you, it offers the added combination of movement, breathing exercises and mindfulness. If not, activities such as walking, traditional yoga, cycling, swimming and strength training also support better mood when practiced consistently.

Q: What daily habits make exercise more effective for improving mood?
A: Exercise works best when it’s combined with other healthy habits that support brain function. Eating enough nutritious carbohydrates and protein, avoiding seed oils high in LA, maintaining good gut health, getting morning sunlight to regulate your body clock and prioritizing restorative sleep all help create an environment that supports healthy mood and emotional resilience.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are disorders characterized by the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, leading to their eventual death. This decline disrupts essential brain functions, resulting in symptoms that significantly impair daily living and overall quality of life.

Common neurodegenerative diseases include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).1 Individuals affected by these conditions often experience memory loss, impaired movement, and difficulties with speech and coordination. As the diseases advance, patients may face severe cognitive and physical challenges, necessitating extensive care and support.

Neurodegenerative diseases now affect millions worldwide, with Alzheimer’s alone responsible for approximately 60% to 70% of dementia cases.2 On the other hand, the prevalence of Parkinson’s disease is expected to double by 2040, underscoring a growing public health concern.3 Additionally, ALS affects about 2 per 100,000 people in Europe and the U.S., with no known cure currently available.4

Risk Factors Associated with Neurodegenerative Diseases

Understanding the underlying causes of NDs is complex, as they often involve a combination of factors. For example, genetic mutations can predispose individuals to conditions like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. According to a review published in the NPJ Parkinson’s Disease journal, genetic factors are linked to 56% to 79% of the risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease.5

• Environmental toxins — Exposure to heavy metals and pesticides, may contribute to neuronal damage. According to the aforementioned study:

“Several studies have suggested that lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and methyl mercury (MeHg) are also neurotoxins and can disrupt brain function, cause cognitive dysfunction, and increase the risk of AD and PD by disrupting mRNA splicing, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the electron transport chain, and oxidative stress.”6

• Lifestyle factors — Poor diet, lack of exercise and chronic stress exacerbate NDs by affecting overall brain health and function. The progression from these underlying causes to full-blown NDs involves a cascade of biological events. Neurons, the brain’s communication cells, begin to lose their structure and function due to factors like oxidative stress and inflammation.

This deterioration disrupts the brain’s ability to process information, leading to symptoms such as memory loss and impaired motor skills. Over time, the cumulative effect of these disruptions results in the characteristic decline associated with NDs.

• Diagnosing NDs can be challenging — Often, symptoms overlap with other conditions, making it difficult to pinpoint the exact disease. For instance, memory loss could be attributed to normal aging, stress, or other medical issues, leading to potential misdiagnosis. Additionally, the lack of definitive biomarkers for many NDs means that diagnosis often relies on clinical assessments and patient history, which can be subjective and vary between practitioners.

• Limitations in diagnostic tools complicate the process — Imaging techniques like MRI and CT scans show brain changes, but these are not always specific to NDs. Blood tests and genetic screenings may offer clues but are not conclusive.

As a result, patients may undergo a lengthy diagnostic journey, experiencing uncertainty and anxiety while seeking answers. This underscores the need for more precise and reliable diagnostic methods to improve early detection and treatment outcomes.

Beyond the immediate symptoms, neurodegenerative diseases lead to profound emotional and financial burden for patients and their families. The progressive nature of these disorders often results in loss of independence, increased healthcare costs and emotional stress. Addressing these multifaceted challenges is crucial in improving patient outcomes and enhancing the quality of life for those affected.

What Research Shows About Probiotics and Alzheimer’s Disease

A 2023 study published in the journal Nutrients7 investigated the impact of probiotics on individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. The research, conducted by Taiwanese researchers, aimed to determine whether different doses of a multi-strain probiotic supplement could influence neurotrophic, inflammatory and oxidative-stress markers, and cognitive function, in patients with Alzheimer’s disease.

• Investigating the effects of probiotics — The study involved 40 adults diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, 32 of whom completed the 12-week trial. In this double-blind, active-controlled design, participants were randomized to a lower-dose or a higher-dose multi-strain probiotic supplement — there was no placebo group.

Both groups took a probiotic capsule containing Bifidobacterium longum BLI-02, B. breve Bv-889, B. animalis lactis CP-9, B. bifidum VDD088, and Lactobacillus plantarum PL-02, differing only in dose. The goal was to assess changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), inflammatory and oxidative-stress markers, and cognitive function as a result of the higher-dose probiotic intervention.

• What the study found on cognitive function — Cognitive test scores (MMSE, ADAS-Cog, ADL, and CDR) did not differ significantly between the higher-dose and lower-dose groups after 12 weeks. Researchers noted a nonsignificant trend toward less cognitive deterioration in the higher-dose group, though this did not reach statistical significance.*

• Inflammation and antioxidant markers — The higher-dose group showed a 36% increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a reduction in the inflammatory marker IL-1β, and an increase in the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), compared to the lower-dose group.* “Considering these findings, specific probiotics demonstrate robust and effective antioxidant capabilities,” the study authors reported.8

Probiotics Reduce Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

The mechanism behind these improvements is believed to involve the gut-brain axis, a communication network between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain.

• Probiotics balance your gut health — Probiotics help maintain a healthy balance of gut microbiota, which in turn may influence brain function. By promoting a diverse and balanced microbiome, probiotics may help reduce systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, both of which are implicated in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. For more information on how gut health affects your mental health, read “Gut Health’s Impact on Mental Well-Being.”

• Benefits of SCFAs — Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are metabolites produced by beneficial bacteria in the gut. SCFAs have been shown to support brain health by providing energy to neurons and reducing inflammation. The increased abundance of Lactobacillus species in the probiotic group likely contributed to higher SCFA levels, fostering an environment conducive to cognitive stability and improvement.

• Benefits are observed in a short amount of time — While this trial’s cognitive measures did not reach statistical significance over 12 weeks, the BDNF, inflammation and oxidative-stress changes emerged in that same short window — suggesting some biological effects of probiotic supplementation may appear relatively quickly, even though longer or larger trials are needed to determine whether measurable cognitive benefits follow.*

Comparing the higher- and lower-dose groups, the higher dose was associated with measurable improvements in BDNF, inflammatory and oxidative-stress markers, while cognitive test scores were similar between groups. This suggests probiotic dose may influence some physiological markers of brain health, though further research is needed to determine whether this translates into measurable cognitive benefit.

Probiotics’ Mechanisms of Action Against Neurodegenerative Disorders

Biologically, the action of probiotics involves several interconnected pathways. By restoring a healthy balance of gut bacteria, probiotics may help reduce the production of harmful substances like lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that trigger inflammation in the brain.9

• Enhancing the integrity of the gut barrier — They may help prevent the leakage of proinflammatory agents into the bloodstream, which could otherwise reach the brain and exacerbate neuroinflammation.10

• Affecting neurotransmitter production — Probiotics may influence the production of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).11 These chemicals are crucial for mood regulation and cognitive function. By increasing the levels of these neurotransmitters, probiotics may contribute to improved mental health and greater cognitive resilience against the degenerative processes of Alzheimer’s disease.

Four Ways to Support Your Brain Through Gut Health

Your gut microbiome is closely connected to brain function, and emerging research suggests it may influence cognitive health and play a role in the risk of neurodegenerative conditions. For example, a study published in Scientific Reports showed that certain bacterial strains in the gut, such as Collinsella, Lachnospira, and Veillonella, increased the risk of Alzheimer’s disease.12

However, they also identified strains that provide protective benefits against Alzheimer’s disease, such as Eubacterium nodatum and Eisenbergiella. These produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly butyrate, from dietary carbohydrates.

Butyrate nourishes your colonic epithelial cells, reinforcing the intestinal barrier. SCFAs also stimulate mucin production, creating a protective shield against harmful bacteria. Akkermansia muciniphila also produces SCFAs, and research has shown that Alzheimer’s patients tend to have very low levels of this important keystone species.13 Here are four strategies that may help support the Akkermansia in your gut to enhance your brain health:

1. Increase Akkermansia through targeted diet and supplementation — Prioritize foods and supplements that promote the growth of Akkermansia. Include well-cooked, prebiotic-rich vegetables and fiber sources that nourish this crucial bacterium.

Look for well-researched Akkermansia-supporting probiotic or postbiotic formulas, which may help support gut barrier integrity and, in turn, healthy inflammation levels. Avoid processed foods and high-fat diets that can hinder Akkermansia growth.

2. Enhance beneficial short-chain fatty acids — Focus on increasing butyrate-producing bacteria alongside Akkermansia which researchers believe may help support healthy amyloid clearance processes in the brain. Incorporate fermented foods and resistant starches that feed these beneficial microbes.

Tailor your carbohydrate intake to support your unique microbiome, aiming for at least 250 grams of targeted carbs daily, and adjust based on your activity level to optimize Akkermansia and short-chain fatty acid production.

3. Support your gut-brain connection — Optimize your gut barrier integrity to prevent inflammatory compounds from reaching your brain. This includes removing inflammatory processed foods and supporting the growth of protective bacteria like Akkermansia, which strengthens your intestinal lining.

Maintain a balanced diet with sufficient carbohydrates tailored to your microbiome, and consider a well-researched Akkermansia-supporting supplement, taken as advised by your healthcare provider, to help sustain your levels.

4. Address systemic inflammation by promoting Akkermansia diversity — Lower inflammation throughout your body by enhancing microbiome diversity, with a specific emphasis on increasing Akkermansia.

Eliminate vegetable oils and other proinflammatory fats that damage gut bacteria, and incorporate foods that reduce inflammatory markers while supporting Akkermansia growth. Regularly monitor biomarkers such as C-reactive protein levels to track your progress in reducing systemic inflammation and maintaining a healthy gut microbiome.

Additional Strategies That May Support Alzheimer’s Risk Reduction

Aside from optimizing your gut health and Akkermansia levels, there’s a plethora of helpful Alzheimer’s prevention strategies, several of which are outlined below:

• Avoid gluten and casein (primarily wheat and pasteurized dairy, but not dairy fat, such as butter) — As noted in a 2022 study,14 your blood-brain barrier is negatively affected by gluten. When bacteria enter your bloodstream, the risk of Alzheimer’s disease increases. Other cognitive disorders are linked to a weakened blood-brain barrier as well, such as Parkinson’s disease, anxiety and depression.

• Make sure you’re getting enough animal-based omega-3 fats — Omega-3 fats, namely EPA and DHA, have been studied for a possible role in protecting brain cells and supporting healthy cognitive aging. That said, omega-3s are PUFAs, so don’t overdo it.

• Optimize your vitamin D level with safe sun exposure — Strong links between low levels of vitamin D in Alzheimer’s patients and poor outcomes on cognitive tests have been revealed. In a 2023 observational study,15 vitamin D supplementation was associated with a 40% lower rate of incident dementia.

The best way to get vitamin D is through sensible sun exposure, aiming for a blood level between 60 and 80 ng/mL. However, you need to purge vegetable oils from your body before going into the sun at solar noon. The LA in your skin oxidizes when exposed to sunlight, causing inflammation and skin damage.

To protect your skin, avoid sun exposure during solar noon for four to six months as you work on removing LA from your body. Stick to sunlight during early morning and late afternoon in the meantime. For additional skin defense, you can take astaxanthin, a low-dose aspirin or molecular hydrogen. Niacinamide cream will also lower your risk of skin damage.

• Keep your fasting insulin levels below 3 — Insulin resistance is linked to accelerated brain aging, as well as neurodegeneration.16

• Eat a nutritious diet, rich in folate — Vegetables, without question, are your best form of folate. Avoid supplements like folic acid, which is the inferior synthetic version of folate. Research shows that folate is a protective factor against Alzheimer’s disease.17

• Avoid and eliminate mercury and aluminum from your body — Dental amalgam fillings, which are 50% mercury by weight, are one of the major sources of heavy metal toxicity. Make sure you use a biological dentist to have your amalgams removed. Sources of aluminum include antiperspirants, nonstick cookware and vaccine adjuvants.

• Make sure your iron isn’t elevated and donate blood if it is — A study18 published in Aging Medicine shows that excess iron increases your risk of Alzheimer’s disease by initiating the Fenton reaction, leading to increased oxidative stress.

• Exercise regularly — Exercise triggers beneficial changes that support cognitive function. Particularly, it’s been shown to improve blood flow to the brain, leading to an increase in biomarkers related to improved neuronal plasticity and better cell survival.19

• Eat blueberries and other antioxidant-rich foods — Wild blueberries, which have high anthocyanin and antioxidant content, are known to guard against neurological diseases.

• Challenge your mind daily — Mental stimulation, such as learning to play a musical instrument, is associated with a decreased risk of Alzheimer’s.20

• Avoid anticholinergics and statin drugs — Drugs that block acetylcholine, a nervous system neurotransmitter, have been shown to increase your risk of dementia. These drugs include certain nighttime pain relievers, antihistamines, sleep aids, certain antidepressants, medications to control incontinence, and certain narcotic pain relievers.

Statin drugs are particularly problematic because they suppress the synthesis of cholesterol, deplete your brain of CoQ10 and neurotransmitter precursors, and prevent adequate delivery of essential fatty acids and fat-soluble antioxidants to your brain by inhibiting the production of the indispensable carrier biomolecule known as low-density lipoprotein.

*These findings are from research conducted in clinical settings. Results may not apply to all individuals.

Talk to your healthcare provider about whether fasting insulin, vitamin D or ferritin/iron testing is appropriate for you. This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Probiotics and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Q: How do probiotics impact neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s?

A: Probiotics may influence brain function through the gut-brain axis by supporting gut microbiome balance and helping reduce inflammation. Early research is exploring whether beneficial bacteria could help support cognitive health in conditions like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, though more research is needed to confirm effects on cognitive decline.

Q: What research supports the benefits of probiotics for Alzheimer’s patients?

A: A 12-week clinical trial published in Nutrients compared higher- and lower-dose multi-strain probiotic supplementation in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (there was no placebo group). The higher dose was associated with increased BDNF and antioxidant activity and reduced inflammatory markers, though cognitive test scores did not differ significantly between groups.

Q: What mechanisms make probiotics beneficial for brain health?

A: Probiotics help may help reduce inflammation by lowering harmful substances like lipopolysaccharides (LPS), enhancing gut barrier integrity, and influencing neurotransmitter production (e.g., dopamine and GABA). They also promote the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which support brain health.

Q: Can improving gut health help prevent neurodegenerative diseases?

A: Possibly. A diverse gut microbiome, particularly the presence of beneficial bacteria like Akkermansia muciniphila, may play a role in supporting healthy inflammation levels and could contribute to long-term brain health, though more research is needed to confirm a protective effect against neurodegeneration. Consuming prebiotic-rich foods, fermented foods, and maintaining a fiber-rich diet can support gut health.

Q: What other lifestyle changes can support brain health and reduce Alzheimer’s risk?

A: In addition to probiotics, strategies like avoiding processed foods, eliminating heavy metal exposure (e.g., mercury and aluminum), maintaining optimal vitamin D and omega-3 levels, exercising regularly, and engaging in mental stimulation activities can help prevent cognitive decline and support brain health.

Most people think of tooth decay as a surface problem — something that starts on the outside of your tooth and works its way in. Brushing, flossing and regular dental visits target that outer layer, and they matter. But your teeth aren’t static objects. They’re living structures that constantly lose and regain minerals. That process depends on what’s happening inside your body, not just what you do at the bathroom sink.

One nutrient that rarely enters the conversation about dental health is vitamin K2. Unlike vitamin K1, which is abundant in leafy greens and primarily supports normal blood clotting, vitamin K2 is found mainly in fermented foods and certain animal products1 — foods that appear far less often in the typical American diet. That gap matters, because vitamin K2 plays a direct role in where calcium ends up inside your body — and whether it reaches your teeth at all.

Research links low vitamin K2 levels to measurable damage in the tissues that hold your teeth in place, and the relationship isn’t a simple on-or-off distinction. The findings suggest that as vitamin K2 status declines, the destruction becomes progressively worse. Those results raise an important question for anyone who wants to keep their natural teeth for life: Is your body getting what it needs to maintain them from the inside out?

Vitamin K2 Levels Fell as Gum Disease Became More Severe

A study published in Healthcare (Basel) investigated whether vitamin K2 blood levels were linked to periodontitis and whether those levels changed as the disease became more advanced.2 Periodontitis is the most advanced stage of gum disease. It develops when early gum inflammation progresses deeper below the gumline, destroying the bone and connective tissue that hold your teeth in place and eventually increasing the risk of loose teeth and tooth loss.

The researchers directly measured vitamin K2 levels in the blood of 100 generally healthy adults. Half had healthy gums, while the other half had diagnosed periodontitis. The goal was to determine whether vitamin K2 status reflected the severity, extent, and progression of the disease.

Because the study compared healthy individuals with patients at different stages of periodontal disease, it also allowed researchers to examine whether vitamin K2 declined steadily as the condition worsened instead of simply comparing healthy versus unhealthy mouths. That provides a clearer picture of how vitamin K2 relates to disease progression.

• The lowest vitamin K2 levels appeared in the people with the most advanced disease — The researchers found that average vitamin K2 blood levels measured 0.43 nmol/L in healthy adults but only 0.27 nmol/L in those with periodontitis. The difference remained statistically significant regardless of age or sex, showing that lower vitamin K2 was consistently associated with periodontal disease throughout the study population.

Even more striking, vitamin K2 levels dropped step by step as the disease became more severe. Average levels measured approximately 0.37 nmol/L in stage I disease, 0.27 nmol/L in stage II, 0.22 nmol/L in stage III and only 0.19 nmol/L in stage IV, the most advanced form. Instead of one sudden decline, vitamin K2 steadily decreased as destruction of the supporting tissues around the teeth increased.

The same pattern appeared when researchers examined how aggressively the disease progressed. Participants with the slowest progression (grade A) averaged 0.36 nmol/L, those with moderate progression (grade B) averaged 0.27 nmol/L and those with the fastest progression (grade C) averaged just 0.21 nmol/L.

• Lower vitamin K2 matched greater bleeding, deeper pockets and more bone destruction — The researchers compared vitamin K2 levels with individual signs of tissue damage. The strongest relationship appeared with bleeding during a dental examination. As vitamin K2 levels declined, bleeding on probing increased substantially, producing one of the strongest statistical associations in the study.

Lower vitamin K2 also corresponded with greater clinical attachment loss, meaning more of the tissues that anchor each tooth had been destroyed. Pocket depth increased as well. These pockets form when the gums pull away from the teeth, creating spaces where harmful bacteria collect and continue damaging the surrounding tissues. The lower the vitamin K2 level, the deeper these pockets became.

The researchers also found strong relationships between lower vitamin K2 and greater jawbone loss around the teeth. This finding matters because once the bone supporting a tooth disappears, that tooth becomes increasingly unstable. Together, bleeding, attachment loss, deep pockets and bone destruction all followed the same pattern as vitamin K2 declined.

• People with disease throughout the mouth had even lower vitamin K2 levels — The study also separated participants based on how much of their mouth was affected. Individuals whose disease involved less than 30% of the teeth had higher vitamin K2 levels than those whose disease had spread throughout much of the mouth. Patients with generalized periodontitis averaged about 0.26 nmol/L, compared with approximately 0.30 nmol/L in those whose disease remained localized.

That finding suggests vitamin K2 status was associated not only with how severe the disease became at individual teeth but also with how widely it spread across the mouth. In other words, lower vitamin K2 accompanied broader destruction of the tissues that support your teeth.

A practical challenge for you is simple: bleeding gums are easy to ignore because they rarely hurt. Yet this study showed that measurable tissue destruction and lower vitamin K2 frequently occur long before teeth become loose enough for people to seek treatment.

• Vitamin K2 supports several biological systems that protect the tissues around your teeth — The researchers discussed several reasons why vitamin K2 could influence periodontal health. One of its best-known jobs is activating proteins involved in building and maintaining healthy bone.

Vitamin K2 supports osteoblasts, the cells responsible for building new bone, while reducing the activity and formation of osteoclasts, the cells responsible for breaking bone down. This shifts the balance toward preserving the bone that anchors your teeth.

The paper also explains that vitamin K2 helps reduce production of RANKL, a signaling molecule that stimulates osteoclast formation. Fewer osteoclasts mean less bone breakdown. At the same time, vitamin K2 supports proteins involved in normal mineralization, allowing calcium to become incorporated into hard tissues instead of remaining in circulation.

For your mouth, that means vitamin K2 participates in maintaining the foundation beneath every tooth rather than affecting only the tooth itself. Healthy teeth require healthy supporting bone, and this study found lower vitamin K2 consistently accompanied greater loss of that foundation.

• The study identifies a strong association but stops short of proving cause and effect — One important strength of this research is that it directly measured vitamin K2 in blood samples instead of estimating intake from food questionnaires. The researchers also carefully excluded many factors that could distort the results, making the comparison between healthy participants and those with periodontitis more reliable.

At the same time, this was a case-control study, meaning it identified relationships rather than proving that low vitamin K2 directly caused periodontal disease. The researchers specifically state that additional clinical research is needed to determine whether improving vitamin K2 status alongside standard periodontal treatment improves long-term outcomes.

Even so, the findings establish an important message: vitamin K2 didn’t simply differ between healthy and unhealthy mouths. It closely tracked the severity, extent and progression of periodontal destruction across nearly every clinical measurement the researchers evaluated. Those findings show what happens when vitamin K2 levels are low. The next question is why — what exactly is vitamin K2 doing inside your teeth and the bone that supports them?

Vitamin K2 Helps Your Teeth Put Calcium to Work

An educational review from Rejuvenation Dentistry focuses on the practical side of this equation, specifically how vitamin K2 works alongside vitamin D3 and calcium to maintain strong enamel from the inside out.3 Getting enough calcium is only part of the equation.

Your body also needs nutrients that help direct calcium to the places where it belongs. Vitamin K2 plays a central role in that process by activating proteins responsible for incorporating calcium into mineralized tissues such as teeth and bones. If you focus only on calcium intake while overlooking vitamin K2, you miss an important part of the system that helps maintain healthy teeth throughout your life.

• Vitamin K2 activates the protein that locks calcium into your teeth — Vitamin K2 activates osteocalcin, a protein that binds calcium to hard tissues like enamel and bone. Without adequate vitamin K2, osteocalcin remains inactive and calcium circulates without being efficiently deposited where your teeth need it most.

Because enamel constantly loses small amounts of minerals to acids from bacteria and food, this activation step matters every day, not just during dental appointments.

• Vitamin D3 and vitamin K2 perform different jobs that complement each other — The review emphasizes that vitamin D3 and vitamin K2 work together instead of replacing one another. Vitamin D3 increases your body’s ability to absorb calcium from food, while vitamin K2 helps guide that absorbed calcium into the places where it belongs.

If you picture building a brick wall, vitamin D3 delivers the bricks to the jobsite while vitamin K2 is the mason who sets each one in place. Both steps matter. Without either one, the finished structure is weaker than it could be.

• Many people eat very little vitamin K2 without realizing it — Unlike vitamin K1, which is abundant in leafy green vegetables, vitamin K2 comes primarily from fermented foods and select animal foods. According to the review, that makes vitamin K2 deficiency more common than vitamin K1 deficiency in modern diets.

Healthy intestinal bacteria produce some vitamin K2. However, because food choices differ greatly from person to person, dietary intake remains an important contributor to overall vitamin K2 status.

• The review highlights whole-food sources before discussing supplements — Foods naturally rich in vitamin K2 include natto, certain fermented cheeses like Gouda, pastured egg yolks, grass fed meats like liver, and some other animal products. Vitamin K2 supplements also exist for individuals who struggle to obtain enough vitamin K2 through food alone.

Building your meals around nutrient-rich whole foods supplies vitamin K2 alongside protein, minerals, and many other compounds that support overall health. If you want stronger teeth over the long term, consistently eating foods that naturally contain vitamin K2 is a habit you build meal by meal instead of trying to correct years later.

How to Build Stronger Teeth from the Inside Out

Every day, your body is repairing the enamel on your teeth and maintaining the bone that keeps them firmly in place. Vitamin K2 is one of the nutrients involved in that process. If you focus only on cleaning your teeth without giving your body the nutrients it needs to maintain them, you’re overlooking an important part of lifelong oral health. Here are five practical steps to support your teeth from the inside out.

1. Eat more foods that naturally provide vitamin K2 — The richest dietary sources of vitamin K2 mentioned above have become much less common in modern diets, making low vitamin K2 intake surprisingly common. Instead of thinking about vitamin K2 as an occasional nutrient, make it part of your regular meal planning.

Adding one or two of these foods several times each week is a simple habit that supports healthy teeth, bones, and gums over the long term.

2. Fill dietary gaps with the right vitamin K2 supplement — If you rarely eat vitamin K2-rich foods, a high-quality supplement is a sensible option. Research suggests that for most adults, daily amounts between 90 and 180 micrograms (mcg) may provide nutritional support, while children up to age 10 generally require about 45 mcg daily and those between 10 and 18 years old about 90 mcg daily.

Some practitioners suggest taking vitamin K2 with your evening meal, especially if you already take vitamin D3, calcium, or magnesium, since this fits well with your body’s normal mineral metabolism.

Vitamin K2 supplements are available primarily as MK-4 and MK-7. MK-4 is the form naturally found in animal foods and remains in the bloodstream for a shorter time, while MK-7, the form abundant in natto, stays available much longer. Because people respond differently to each form, selecting the one that best matches your individual needs helps maintain consistent support for healthy calcium transport.

3. Treat vitamin D3 and vitamin K2 as partners — Vitamin D3 helps your body absorb calcium, but vitamin K2 helps direct that calcium into your teeth and bones instead of allowing it to accumulate in soft tissues. Taking one without enough of the other leaves your body with an incomplete system for handling calcium.

As a practical guideline, if your daily routine includes about 5,000 IU of vitamin D3, research suggests pairing it with approximately 180 micrograms of vitamin K2. Looking at these nutrients as a team instead of separate supplements helps your body put calcium where it benefits you most.

4. Pay attention to your gums before serious damage develops — Bleeding gums aren’t something to brush off. If your gums bleed when you brush or floss, appear swollen or have started pulling away from your teeth, view those changes as early warning signs. The study showed that lower vitamin K2 levels were associated with more extensive periodontal damage.

Addressing gum problems early gives you a much better opportunity to preserve the bone and connective tissue that keep your teeth stable.

5. Build one lasting habit instead of chasing quick fixes — You don’t need to overhaul your entire diet overnight. Pick one realistic goal this week, such as adding a pastured egg yolk to breakfast, choosing grass fed Gouda instead of processed cheese or including another vitamin K2-rich food in several meals. Once that habit feels effortless, add another. Small improvements repeated consistently almost always outperform dramatic changes that don’t last.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

FAQs About Vitamin K and Tooth Decay

Q: How does vitamin K2 help protect my teeth?
A: Vitamin K2 activates proteins that help move calcium into your teeth and the bone that supports them. This helps maintain strong enamel and a healthy jawbone instead of leaving calcium circulating where it serves little benefit. Healthy teeth depend on this internal mineral balance just as much as they depend on daily brushing and flossing.

Q: What’s the connection between vitamin K2 and gum disease?
A: Researchers found that people with lower vitamin K2 blood levels had more severe periodontitis, including greater gum bleeding, deeper pockets around the teeth, increased attachment loss and more bone destruction. The study found a strong association between vitamin K2 status and the severity of periodontal disease, although it didn’t prove that low vitamin K2 directly caused the condition.

Q: Which foods provide the most vitamin K2?
A: The richest natural sources include natto, aged cheeses such as Gouda, pastured egg yolks and grass fed organ meats like liver. Because these foods aren’t common in many modern diets, some people consume much less vitamin K2 than they realize. If these foods are rarely part of your meals, a vitamin K2 supplement is another option.

Q: Why should vitamin D3 and vitamin K2 be taken together?
A: Vitamin D3 increases the amount of calcium your body absorbs, while vitamin K2 helps direct that calcium into your teeth and bones. Taking vitamin D3 without enough vitamin K2 leaves your body with more calcium to manage but fewer tools to help place it where it belongs. Balancing these nutrients supports healthy calcium metabolism.

Q: What are the first signs that my gums need attention?
A: Bleeding when you brush or floss, swollen or tender gums, receding gums and persistent bad breath are all warning signs that deserve attention. Gum disease often progresses quietly before pain develops, so recognizing these early changes and supporting your oral health through proper nutrition and daily dental care gives you a better chance of protecting your natural teeth for the long term.

Visualize a huge workshop in your body that never stops working. Every second of the day, this workshop — your cells — transforms the food you eat into the energy and building blocks you need to survive. Picture endless supplies of raw materials being delivered to this workshop. When the workshop receives exactly what it needs, it hums along smoothly, producing vital components and discarding waste at a comfortable pace.

But when it is flooded with more resources than it can handle, chaos develops that reminds you of an old “I Love Lucy” episode. Conveyor belts clog, half-finished products pile up, and machines begin malfunctioning. That chaos mirrors what happens inside your cells when blood sugar stays chronically high, as it does in Type 2 diabetes.

Scientists once focused on how too much sugar in your bloodstream creates damage through something called oxidative stress — an onslaught of destructive, oxygen-containing molecules. While that is important, a less-discussed process — reductive stress — may be at least as central to the damage.1 For an easy-to-understand overview of what reductive stress is, and how it’s caused, see “Redox Simplified, Part 1.”

Reductive stress was described in the literature as early as 1989 — in a study of hepatocytes under chemical hypoxia — and has only relatively recently been applied to chronic high blood sugar.2 It is at least as significant as oxidative stress for explaining why your cells lose their balance under conditions of prolonged high blood sugar. Reductive stress is proposed to be the hidden spark that sets off a harmful chain reaction, one that may eventually contribute to problems for cells, tissues, and organs.

Type 2 diabetes is frequently described as a disease of “overnutrition.” People consume more caloric energy than their bodies know what to do with, so cells try to cope with that oversupply. Insulin is the hormone that helps move sugar from the bloodstream into cells for use or storage.

This sugar is primarily glucose — a simple sugar that is chemically identical to what’s sometimes called dextrose, especially when you find it as a commercially available product in a store or used in intravenous lines (IVs). In the early stages of Type 2 diabetes, cells grow resistant to insulin’s signal, making them slow to remove excess sugar from circulation.

However, in the late 1980s, scientists began to understand that there was another, more significant explanation beyond overnutrition. They couldn’t fully explain the observed pathologies solely based on excessive nutrient intake.

While overnutrition can contribute to health problems, the deeper issue appears to be a disruption in the cellular machinery responsible for metabolizing fuel. Essentially, the “furnaces” within cells, the mitochondria, become less efficient at burning fuel. This diminished capacity to use fuel effectively leads to a buildup of harmful byproducts and, ultimately, cellular damage.

Why Overly High Sugar Leads to Reductive Stress

Many researchers once blamed only oxidative stress for the damage caused by chronic elevated blood sugars, but the story is far more complex. A less publicized culprit called reductive stress occurs when there is an oversupply of special electron-carrying molecules in your cells.

• Too many electron-carrying molecules in your cells — One of the key carriers is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), which picks up electrons when sugar is broken down for energy. Ordinarily, NADH unloads its electrons in the electron transport chain (ETC) of your mitochondria. When you have too much sugar around, your metabolic pathways generate more NADH than your cells can handle. This oversupply forms a traffic jam of electrons stuck in your mitochondrial ETC.

• The impact of excess NADH — During normal metabolism, oxygen in your mitochondria eventually accepts electrons from carriers like NADH, letting adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and water form. However, if NADH is piling up too fast or is not being recycled quickly enough, your mitochondria reach a bottleneck and start leaking electrons onto oxygen in erratic ways. That partial reaction creates a reactive oxygen species (ROS) called superoxide.

• Having excess NADH can cause reductive stress — This is thought to set off a cascade that leads to excessive oxidative stress. The two stresses work hand in hand — they both push the system toward an oxidative meltdown. Realizing that they are connected helps explain many of the complications tied to long-term high blood sugar.

Cells also have backup systems like NADPH, which help defend against or repair routine oxidative damage. But when you have high blood sugar, these carriers are also thrown off balance, sometimes contributing further to reductive stress. So, what should be a finely tuned assembly line of electrons becomes a crowded, poorly managed factory.

How Mitochondria and Enzymes Suffer Under Excess Sugar

Under healthy conditions, most sugar flows through glycolysis and then the Krebs cycle in your mitochondria, leading to a steady generation of NADH for ATP production. In a state of chronically high blood sugar, a steady flood of sugar pours in, leading to overly high rates of NADH production.

• Influx of sugar creates electron pressure — Pancreatic beta cells and liver cells are particularly vulnerable because they possess an enzyme called glucokinase, which does not slow down as sugar accumulates. It just keeps stuffing sugar into the mill, generating more pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, and eventually too much NADH.

This leads to what some researchers call electron pressure. Think of it as building water pressure in a dam. The more NADH, the more “water” is pushing against the gates of the ETC. If the gates can’t relieve that pressure quickly enough, water (electrons) spills out in harmful ways, forming superoxide and other ROS.

• Rethinking the accepted causes of oxidative stress — Though fat metabolism or a lack of antioxidants is typically considered the reasons for oxidative stress, this featured review argues that an overabundance of electron carriers such as NADH is what triggers the chain of events.

• Low oxygen consumption occurs — Low oxygen usage in cells, sometimes referred to as pseudohypoxia, can also happen under these conditions. Even though oxygen might be physically present, the cell’s ability to use that oxygen effectively stalls when electron carriers accumulate. It’s the same effect as having enough workers on an assembly line but not being able to move products forward because the packaging stations are jammed.

When Reductive Stress Morphs Into Oxidative Damage

Too much NADH sets the stage for oxidative stress, but how does that transition really happen?

• The process behind excess NADH creation — The mitochondria’s Complex I tries to oxidize NADH — basically convert it back to NAD+ — but an overwhelming influx of NADH leads to partial electron leaks onto oxygen, generating superoxide.

• Superoxide transforms into more harmful substances — The superoxide easily transforms into other even more hazardous molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide or hydroxyl radicals, intensifying the cell’s damage. Hence, reductive stress is proposed to be the fuse that ignites oxidative stress.

Researchers used to think of oxidative stress and reductive stress as opposites, but this review makes the case that a large wave of oxidative molecules generally follows an upstream buildup of electrons. The meltdown occurs when all these unwanted oxygen-based molecules assault proteins, lipids, and genetic material within cells, blocking regular functions and straining the system further.

How Key Enzymes Become Blocked, Triggering Toxic Side Routes

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, or GAPDH, is an important enzyme in glycolysis. You can think of it as a traffic cop, directing the flow of carbon units down the main route for energy production.

• Reductive stress roadblocks GAPDH — In reductive stress conditions, superoxide and other reactive molecules can chemically inactivate GAPDH, jamming the normal route. That means partially digested sugar fragments accumulate, searching for an escape route. If the main road of glycolysis is blocked, these fragments slip into alternative pathways — often called branching pathways.

• Examples of branching pathways — One of the branches is the polyol pathway, where sugar is first turned into sorbitol and then into fructose. This route increases NADH and drains NADPH, leaving the cell less capable of defending against oxidative threats. Another branch is the hexosamine pathway, which decorates proteins with sugar-like attachments and can promote even more harmful byproducts.

A third branch leads to the creation of advanced glycation end products, lumps of sugar stuck onto proteins that distort them and spark inflammation.

Each of these side roads is linked to the production or amplification of ROS, so the cell can find itself in an escalating cycle — high sugar contributing to reductive stress, which can add to oxidative stress. This damages enzymes, diverting leftover sugar into alternative routes that generate still more oxidative stress.

• Where diabetic complications may come from — This cyclical process is proposed to underlie the hallmark problems of diabetes — nerves lose function (neuropathy), eyes develop vision problems (retinopathy), kidneys are damaged (nephropathy), and blood vessels narrow or weaken (contributing to strokes, heart attacks, and amputations). It’s a chain reaction that the review traces back to too much sugar and too many electrons in the wrong place at the wrong time.

The following graph, Figure 4 from Liang-Jun Yan’s 2014 review article, “Pathogenesis of chronic hyperglycemia: from reductive stress to oxidative stress,”3 published in the Journal of Diabetes Research, illustrates this proposed process.

It is worth noting what kind of paper this is — a narrative review that synthesizes laboratory and animal findings into a proposed mechanism, rather than a clinical trial in people. The pathway it describes is a well-argued hypothesis, not a demonstrated cause-and-effect sequence in human patients.

What This May Mean for People with Diabetes

As chronic hyperglycemia persists, cells get battered by waves of destructive molecules. This environment disrupts insulin secretion, lowers insulin sensitivity, and robs tissues of normal functioning. Studies measuring oxidative stress markers have reported higher levels in people with poor blood sugar control, a pattern consistent with — though not proof of — the idea that excess electron carriers translate into oxidative harm.

• There is a glimmer of hope — If the fundamental problem is that NADH builds up too fast, then reducing or balancing that electron overload might help limit the downstream damage.

• Looking further upstream — While many diabetes treatments focus on lowering blood sugar in general, or on clearing ROS after they form, researchers have suggested that approaches which curb the production of extra NADH, or help cells recycle NADH back to NAD+ more efficiently, deserve further study.

• Other directions under investigation — Some researchers suggest that strengthening the ETC, or using dietary or pharmaceutical interventions that enhance NAD+ regeneration, may short-circuit the cascade before oxidative stress escalates.

In simpler language, controlling reductive stress means improving the traffic flow of electrons in the cell, ensuring they don’t stack up to dangerous levels. If you manage the electron flow at the front end, you reduce the chance of harmful chain reactions downstream.

Putting It All Together — Why Reductive Stress Matters So Much

Prolonged high blood sugar is well-documented as toxic to cells, but the featured review proposes that the toxicity operates through a two-phase process — first, reductive stress (an electron overload), then oxidative stress (excess oxygen-based radicals) completing the damage.

• Oxidative stress is just one piece of the puzzle — The statement above modifies the classic narrative that only oxidative stress is to blame. Recognizing how reductive stress kindles oxidative stress helps us see that lowering sugar might not be enough; we also need to keep watch on the entire electron-handling machinery within cells.

• Reductive stress needs to be detected earlier — One of the big questions is why reductive stress has been overlooked for so long if it’s so central. Part of the answer is that oxidative stress is easier to detect with standard lab tests and known chemical markers, whereas reductive stress is more subtle, only revealing itself in how the electron carriers build up.

Also, reductive stress was first documented decades ago and then largely forgotten, overshadowed by the simpler story of oxygen-based radicals. Only with improved technologies and a deeper dive into ETC dynamics did researchers rediscover how an oversupply of NADH or NADPH can disrupt everything.

In everyday life, the main message remains consistent — support healthy blood sugar regulation, and give your mitochondria what they need to process fuel efficiently in the first place.

• Strategies to address reductive stress — Good nutrition, regular movement, and routine medical check-ups all form part of the frontline in keeping reductive stress from escalating into widespread oxidative damage.

• The importance of studying reductive stress — Long term, the real advantage in understanding reductive stress is that it offers a new angle — one that goes beyond the usual talk of high sugar and ROS. By focusing on the earliest link in the chain, researchers hope that several downstream problems might be addressed at once — a possibility the featured review raises for insulin production, inflammation and organ function, though it remains to be tested.

Supplements That May Help Address Reductive Stress

Several nutrients have been discussed in the research literature in connection with mitochondrial electron flow. It is important to be clear about what that does and does not mean — none of these have been tested as a treatment for reductive stress in people with Type 2 diabetes, and the featured review cited above does not evaluate any of them. What follows is a summary of proposed mechanisms; it’s not a treatment protocol:

• Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) / Ubiquinol:

◦ Mechanism — CoQ10 is a vital component of the ETC in mitochondria. It acts as an electron shuttle, helping to move electrons along the ETC and facilitate ATP production. In its reduced form, ubiquinol, it can also act as an antioxidant.

◦ Relevance to reductive stress — Because of its role in the ETC, CoQ10 has been proposed to influence NADH handling and electron leakage.

• Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA):

◦ Mechanism — ALA is a potent antioxidant that can also regenerate other antioxidants, such as vitamin C. It also plays a role in mitochondrial energy metabolism.

◦ Relevance to reductive stress — ALA’s antioxidant properties have been discussed in relation to the oxidative damage that follows reductive stress. Worth noting, though — adding reducing equivalents is a different strategy from relieving the electron overload described earlier in this article, and the featured Journal of Diabetes Research review cited earlier points toward improving NADH oxidation rather than adding antioxidants.

◦ Note — ALA exists in two forms (R-lipoic acid and S-lipoic acid), and the R form is generally considered more biologically active.

• Methylene blue:

◦ Mechanism — Methylene blue acts as an alternative electron acceptor in the ETC, effectively bypassing Complex I and III. It can cycle between its oxidized and reduced forms, shuttling electrons directly to cytochrome c and oxygen, improving mitochondrial function even when the standard ETC is impaired.

Methylene blue’s ability to accept electrons makes it particularly useful in conditions where the standard ETC is overwhelmed or dysfunctional.

◦ Relevance to reductive stress — By providing an alternative route for electron flow, methylene blue helps relieve the electron congestion that characterizes reductive stress. It effectively acts as an “electron pressure release valve,” helping to prevent the buildup of NADH and reducing the likelihood of electron leakage and subsequent oxidative damage.

◦ Important safety parameters — If you are considering methylene blue, use only pharmaceutical-grade methylene blue in capsule or tablet form, prescribed by a health care professional and sourced from a compounding pharmacy. The dose typically discussed for reductive stress is 5 milligrams once daily, regardless of body weight. Industrial or aquarium-grade methylene blue is not suitable for human use.

• Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ):

◦ Mechanism — PQQ is a potent antioxidant that has been reported in laboratory and animal research to stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis (the creation of new mitochondria).*

◦ Relevance to reductive stress — If PQQ does increase the number of mitochondria and improve their function, it could in principle expand the cell’s capacity to handle electron flow. This has not been tested against reductive stress in people.

• Riboflavin (B2), niacinamide (B3) and thiamine (B1):

◦ Mechanism — B vitamins play essential roles as coenzymes in various metabolic pathways, including those involved in energy production and the ETC. Riboflavin is a precursor to FAD, and niacinamide is a precursor to NAD+. Both are electron carriers.

◦ Relevance to reductive stress — Adequate levels of B vitamins are essential for the proper functioning of the ETC and may help to prevent the buildup of reducing equivalents.

*These findings are from laboratory or animal research and may not directly apply to human health.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Reductive Stress and Type 2 Diabetes

Q: What is reductive stress, and how does it relate to Type 2 diabetes?

A: Reductive stress occurs when cells accumulate too many electron-carrying molecules, such as NADH, due to prolonged high blood sugar levels. This overload creates a bottleneck in the mitochondria, leading to an imbalance that ultimately triggers oxidative stress. In Type 2 diabetes, more fuel arrives than the cell’s machinery can process, and this overload is proposed to set off a cascade of effects that may damage cells, tissues, and organs.

Q: How does reductive stress contribute to oxidative stress and cellular damage?

A: When NADH builds up in cells, it overwhelms the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria, leading to electron leakage. These leaked electrons react with oxygen to form harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) like superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. This oxidative damage disrupts cellular processes, impairs insulin function and contributes to complications like neuropathy, retinopathy and kidney disease.

Q: Why is reductive stress often overlooked in diabetes research?

A: Traditionally, scientists have focused on oxidative stress as the primary cause of cellular damage in diabetes. However, newer research proposes that reductive stress precedes oxidative stress and acts as the initial trigger. The difficulty in measuring reductive stress and its more subtle effects led to its underappreciation for decades, but advances in mitochondrial research have revived interest in its role.

Q: What strategies can help manage reductive stress in Type 2 diabetes?

A: Supporting healthy blood sugar regulation through good nutrition and regular movement is a practical starting point. Some researchers have also examined supplements such as coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), and methylene blue in connection with mitochondrial electron flow, though none has been established as a treatment for reductive stress.

Q: How do supplements like CoQ10 and alpha-lipoic acid help with reductive stress?

A: CoQ10 is involved in mitochondrial function by facilitating electron transfer in the ETC, which has been proposed to reduce the buildup of NADH. Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) acts as an antioxidant and helps regenerate other protective molecules like glutathione. Whether either of these translates into meaningful changes in cellular redox balance or insulin sensitivity in people with diabetes has not been established, and neither is a substitute for medical care.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Omega-3 fats are essential for life itself, powering everything from the way your heart pumps to how your brain processes information. Your body can’t produce these fats on its own, which is why you need to obtain them from outside sources. Fatty fish like wild-caught salmon, sardines, and mackerel are traditional foods rich in omega-3s, while supplements such as fish oil and krill oil have become popular for those who want a concentrated dose.

The problem isn’t just getting omega-3s into your system — it’s whether your body absorbs and uses them effectively. Krill oil has gained attention because it delivers omega-3s in a phospholipid form, which slips into your cell membranes more easily. Fish oil, on the other hand, usually comes in triglyceride or ethyl ester forms, requiring more processing before your body can use it.

This structural difference changes how well you absorb fatty acids and how much benefit you actually receive. A study published in Food Chemistry: X showed clear differences in absorption depending on both the omega-3 source and formulation.1 Understanding these differences directly affects the benefits you feel in your heart, brain, joints, and beyond.

Krill Oil Shows a Clear Edge Over Fish Oil in Absorption

For the Food Chemistry: X study, researchers analyzed 26 high-quality randomized controlled trials with data collected between 2003 and 2023.2 The goal was to compare how well your body absorbs omega-3 fats from different sources — fish oil and krill oil.

Researchers focused on key markers in the blood, such as the omega-3 index, maximum blood concentration, time to reach peak levels, and the total exposure over time. These are standard ways scientists measure how efficiently nutrients get into your system and how long they stay there.

• Krill oil raised omega-3s more at lower doses — The findings showed that krill oil was more effective than fish oil at raising blood omega-3 levels when given at lower doses, while fish oil needed higher amounts to achieve a similar effect. When dosages were under 2,000 milligrams (mg), krill oil consistently outperformed fish oil.

This means if you take krill oil, you could use a smaller dose and still improve your omega-3 status. Fish oil required higher intakes — sometimes above 3,000 mg — to move the omega-3 index upward in a meaningful way. The omega-3 index is the percentage of EPA and DHA in your red blood cell membranes, and higher scores are strongly linked to better heart and brain outcomes.

• Fish oil emulsions delivered strong short-term results but come with a downside — While standard fish oil capsules lagged behind krill oil, emulsified forms of fish oil were an exception. Emulsions are blends where the oil is broken into tiny droplets, making it easier for your digestive system to process. These emulsions increased peak blood concentrations of omega-3s more than either regular fish oil or krill oil, meaning your body gets a faster boost.

Fish oil emulsions do carry some downsides, however, and rancidity is one of the main concerns. Because emulsions mix oil with water to improve absorption, they have a much larger surface area exposed to oxygen compared to standard capsules. That makes them more vulnerable to oxidation, the chemical reaction that turns fats rancid.
When fish oil oxidizes, it produces harmful byproducts that increase inflammation instead of reducing it — the exact opposite of what you want from omega-3s.

• High-dose fish oil improved long-term levels but with serious trade-offs — Fish oil above 3,000 mg per day raised the omega-3 index more strongly than lower doses. However, the researchers cautioned that higher intakes also raised the risk of unpleasant side effects, including digestive upset and excessive blood thinning.

High doses of omega-3s, especially from supplements, have also been linked to an increased risk of atrial fibrillation, a serious heart rhythm problem.3 This means that while high-dose fish oil works, it comes with a price. Krill oil at lower doses delivered a safer path to similar benefits without forcing your body to handle such a heavy load.

• Krill oil phospholipids gave it a unique advantage — The key reason krill oil worked better at lower doses was its structure. In krill oil, omega-3s are attached to phospholipids, a type of fat that naturally makes up your cell membranes. Because your cells are already built from phospholipids, this form of omega-3 slips in more easily.

The researchers explained that phospholipids in krill oil have amphiphilic properties, meaning they dissolve well in both water and fat. This makes them more compatible with your digestive system and easier to transport into your bloodstream. Fish oil, by contrast, usually contains triglycerides or ethyl esters, which are less efficient because they require pancreatic enzymes and bile acids to be broken apart before absorption. That extra step slows absorption and reduces efficiency.

What the Research Shows on Krill Oil and Knee Osteoarthritis

The differences in absorption and stability help explain why krill oil is being studied for more than just heart and metabolic health. Beyond improving how omega-3s are delivered to your cells, researchers have begun asking whether these benefits translate into relief for conditions linked to chronic inflammation, such as osteoarthritis.

That’s where the next study comes in — a closer look at how krill oil performs for people struggling with knee pain and mobility challenges. The study, published in Medicine (Baltimore), pulled together data from five randomized controlled trials involving 730 people diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis.4 The researchers wanted to see whether krill oil supplements were effective at relieving symptoms like pain, stiffness, and difficulty with daily movement.

• Study participants were mostly middle-aged and older adults — The people included in these trials were adults aged 30 to 85 years with mild to moderate knee osteoarthritis.

Some had additional issues like cardiovascular disease or rheumatoid arthritis, but the main focus was on knee pain and reduced mobility from osteoarthritis. Participants received krill oil in doses ranging from 2 to 4 grams per day, while control groups received placebos such as vegetable oils or inactive capsules. Treatment lasted from one month to 24 weeks, depending on the trial.

• Krill oil improved WOMAC stiffness, pain, and function — though the pain evidence was mixed — On the WOMAC index, krill oil was associated with statistically significant improvements in pain, stiffness, and physical function versus controls.
The pain evidence was mixed, however: The improvement did not reach statistical significance on the separate visual analog scale, and the authors concluded that krill oil’s effect on pain relief warrants additional investigation. They described krill oil as a promising option for knee osteoarthritis, with the optimal dose still to be determined.

• Side effects were rare and showed no difference from controls — When researchers looked at side effects, they found no significant differences between krill oil and placebo groups. Safety was comparable — krill oil did not cause more adverse effects than standard care. This reinforces the idea that krill oil is safe for most people when taken in typical doses.

• Possible mechanisms include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects — Scientists believe the benefits of krill oil stem from its high content of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) and the antioxidant astaxanthin. Omega-3s may reduce the activity of inflammatory pathways in your body, which lowers the release of chemicals that drive joint swelling and pain.

Astaxanthin adds an extra layer of protection by neutralizing free radicals — unstable molecules that damage joint tissues and worsen osteoarthritis. Together, these compounds create a protective environment that may slow down joint damage and ease symptoms.

Krill Oil Supports Smoother, Better-Hydrated Skin in 12 Weeks

Krill oil’s benefits also extend to your skin. In a study published in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, researchers ran two placebo-controlled pilot trials testing 1 and 2 grams of krill oil per day for up to 12 weeks.5 The goal was straightforward: does daily krill oil improve transepidermal water loss — a marker of skin barrier strength — surface hydration, elasticity, and the omega-3 index compared with placebo?

One important caveat: This skin research was funded by a krill-oil manufacturer (Aker BioMarine), two of its authors are employees of that company, and the company supplied the krill and placebo capsules. The two trials were also small pilot studies in healthy adults, so the findings await independent confirmation.

• Omega-3 status rose and skin barrier loss fell — Krill oil significantly raised the omega-3 index versus placebo in both studies. The authors noted “dose-dependent improvements” in skin barrier strength, hydration, and elasticity compared to placebo. While benefits were seen for both groups, they were greater at 2 grams per day.

• Hydration and elasticity improved meaningfully — Compared with placebo, hydration increased at 12 weeks, and elasticity rose, with large effect sizes, indicating robust, visible changes in skin properties. In other words, skin held water better and bounced back more readily. Gains emerged by week six and continued to week 12.

• Mechanisms likely involve membrane lipids, ceramides, collagen, and hyaluronic acid — The authors noted krill oil’s EPA/DHA in phospholipid form supports membrane structure and may influence barrier lipids like ceramides; Preclinical work cited in the paper links krill oil to higher skin collagen and hyaluronic acid gene expression and protection from ultraviolet-B-induced inflammation, aligning with the human improvements in skin barrier strength, hydration, and elasticity.

For normal-to-slightly-dry skin, 1 to 2 g/day krill oil for 12 weeks was associated with improved barrier strength, increased moisture, and improved elasticity, with larger gains at 2 g/day and outcomes tied directly to rising omega-3 index — an objective marker you can track.

Krill Oil and Liver Fat: Findings from an Animal Study

Researchers have also studied krill oil and liver fat, though so far in animals rather than people. Published in Nutrients, a mouse-and-cell study tested Antarctic krill oil against a high-fat diet to see whether it curbs fatty liver and oxidative stress, while also mapping the exact liver signaling pathways involved.6 Male mice were fed a high-fat diet for 60 days and received krill oil at 400 mg/kg per day.

• Liver fat dropped and “bad” lipid patterns eased — Compared with high-fat diet alone, krill oil lowered liver triglycerides and reduced visible liver fat. Blood lipids shifted in a favorable direction alongside improved atherogenic indexes that estimate artery risk.

• Krill oil helped the liver fight damage from stress — Eating a high-fat diet caused more “wear and tear” inside the liver by raising harmful byproducts (MDA) and lowering the activity of protective enzymes. Krill oil reversed this trend: it lowered MDA and boosted the activity of key liver defenses. That means less damage and stronger protection in the organ that processes most of your fat.

• Lab tests showed how krill oil interacts at the enzyme level — Computer modeling revealed that compounds in krill oil — including astaxanthin, EPA, and DHA — physically fit into the cholesterol-making enzyme in ways that explain why it slows cholesterol production. This provides a biological explanation for the cholesterol-lowering effects seen in the study.

• Fat storage outside the liver trended down as well — Krill oil cut down belly fat in mice fed a high-fat diet, suggesting it doesn’t just help your liver but may also improve how fat is stored across your body.

Note: The liver fat findings are from animal research and may not directly apply to human health. The remaining findings are from research conducted in clinical settings; results may not apply to all individuals.

Practical Steps to Make Omega-3s Work Better for You

If you’re trying to decide between fish oil and krill oil, it helps to know how differently they work in your body. Fish oil delivers omega-3s attached to triglycerides, while krill oil carries them in phospholipids — the same fats that make up your cell membranes.

That simple difference means krill oil slips into your cells more easily and delivers its benefits more efficiently. On top of that, krill oil contains astaxanthin, a natural antioxidant that keeps the oil stable and resists rancidity, something standard fish oils struggle with. Here’s how you can put this knowledge to use.

1. Choose krill oil for better absorption and added protection — If you’re taking omega-3s in supplement form, consider krill oil. Its phospholipid-bound EPA and DHA integrate directly into your cell membranes, which means your body makes better use of every milligram. In animal research, krill oil improved liver fat levels and lowered oxidative stress in just two months.7 You also get the astaxanthin, which helps make krill oil less likely to go rancid compared to fish oil.

Keep the Omega-3 Paradox in mind, though: More is not better. Daily omega-3 supplementation above about 1 gram has been linked to an increased risk of atrial fibrillation, especially in people with pre-existing heart conditions.8 Favor lower doses and whole-food sources, and increase your intake only under the guidance of your health care provider.

2. Focus on omega-3-rich whole foods — If you’d rather rely on your plate instead of a capsule, focus on wild-caught fatty fish such as Alaskan salmon, sardines, anchovies, and mackerel. These foods naturally deliver omega-3s in a balanced form that supports inflammation control and helps your liver handle fat more effectively. Eating fish a few times a week is one of the simplest, most natural ways to keep your omega-3 status strong.

3. Skip cheap fish oils that work against you — If you’re grabbing a bargain bottle of fish oil, you may be doing more harm than good. Many low-quality oils oxidize quickly, especially if they’re stored in warm or bright conditions. Once oxidized, fish oil produces compounds that fuel inflammation instead of calming it. Krill oil is naturally protected by astaxanthin, which keeps it stable and safe to use over time.

4. Avoid overdoing your intake — If you think more omega-3 is always better, think again. High-dose supplements — especially fish oil — have been linked to increased risks such as atrial fibrillation, a dangerous heart rhythm disorder.9 You don’t need megadoses to see real benefits. A food-first approach paired with a moderate amount of krill oil is enough to support your heart, brain, and liver without tipping into risky territory.

5. Clean up your fat sources to let omega-3s work — If you’re still eating ultraprocessed foods loaded with seed oils like soybean, canola, corn, or sunflower oil, you’re making it harder for omega-3s to do their job. These oils flood your system with linoleic acid, which may worsen inflammation and crowd out omega-3 activity.
Replace them with healthier fats like grass fed butter, tallow, and ghee, while using krill oil or fatty fish as your main omega-3 sources. This shift removes the roadblocks and lets the benefits of omega-3s fully reach your cells.

FAQs About Krill Oil vs. Fish Oil

Q: Why are omega-3 fats so important for health?
A: Omega-3s are essential fats that your body can’t make on its own. They power everything from your heart rhythm to brain function. You need to get them from outside sources like fatty fish or supplements such as fish oil and krill oil.

Q: How is krill oil different from fish oil?
A: Krill oil carries omega-3s in phospholipids, which match the structure of your cell membranes, making absorption more efficient. Fish oil usually delivers them in triglyceride or ethyl ester forms, which require more processing before your body can use them.

Q: What does the research say about krill oil’s absorption compared to fish oil?
A: A study in Food Chemistry: X found krill oil raised omega-3 blood levels more effectively at lower doses, while fish oil needed higher amounts to get similar results.10 Fish oil emulsions gave a quick boost but are more prone to rancidity, and high-dose fish oil carries risks like digestive upset and atrial fibrillation.

Q: Does krill oil help with joint pain from osteoarthritis?
A: The evidence is mixed. A meta-analysis in Medicine (Baltimore) reviewed five clinical trials with 730 participants. On the WOMAC index, krill oil significantly improved pain, stiffness, and function, but the improvement in pain did not hold up on a separate visual analog scale, and the authors concluded its effect on pain relief needs further study.11 Side effects were minimal and similar to placebo.

Q: Are there other benefits of krill oil beyond heart and joint health?
A: Research shows krill oil supports skin hydration and elasticity, strengthens your skin barrier, and reduces liver fat and oxidative stress in obesity models.12,13 These benefits come from its unique phospholipid omega-3s plus astaxanthin, a natural antioxidant that protects cells and prevents rancidity.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Every once in a while, someone looks at an industry that has become too complicated and decides it doesn’t have to be that way. Nest did it with the thermostat, turning a fussy household control panel into something people could understand at a glance.

The invention of GPS-enabled digital mapping revolutionized navigation. If you’re old enough, you’ll remember the multi-step procedure we had to go through: planning routes the night before, printing the turn-by-turn sheet, unfolding a map at a red light, or pulling over to ask a stranger for directions. Now you just enter a destination, and a voice guides you the whole way, rerouting on its own when you miss a turn. Now, anyone with a smartphone can drive to unfamiliar destinations without the hassle of getting lost.

Supplements have been waiting their turn. For as long as most of us can remember, they’ve involved remembering to take fistfuls of pills and capsules, turning into a clinical chore performed out of a sense of obligation to one’s health — and abandoned due to the complexity of the schedules and the busyness of modern life.

A supplement routine that only works when days are relaxed and organized usually ends in feelings of personal failure. But the failure was in the design, not you. And a design problem is something that can be fixed, which is precisely what we’re doing.

One Idea, Told Ten Ways

Everything in this article series has been a single idea told from several angles: by redesigning supplements to fit modern lifestyles, we can help people improve their nutrition and hence their health — as opposed to insisting that people just work on their willpower.

The hidden burden that makes so many people quit a supplement routine is removed, by design, because the research shows that complicated regimens and plain forgetfulness are among the biggest reasons people stop a daily routine, while a simplified one is among the strongest factors that keep them going.1

The fistful of pills oftentimes doesn’t fit the way people live, simply because they forget to take them when busy, and most days are that way. For many, a simpler food-centered model, where nutritional powder is added to food you’re eating anyway, is the answer to that dilemma.

The mega-dose game is also up for revision, as how much of a nutrient actually reaches you depends heavily on its form and delivery method, not the total dose.2 The psychology of why we quit is also being addressed by coming up with a routine so simple it can survive your worst days, anchored to something you already do, because a behavior repeated in a stable, everyday context is the kind that becomes automatic and lasts.3

Food-centered supplementation even tackles the self-blame that comes from backsliding. When you view a nutritional supplement as part of your diet, you’re less likely to view a missed dose as a personal failure. And without the self-shaming, you’re more likely to just pick up where you left off. As research has shown, treating yourself kindly after a slip is linked to better follow-through.4

The test every decision in this approach must pass is “does this fit the life of a busy, imperfect person?” When the answer is yes, the engineering has done its job — by disappearing into a routine so natural you barely think of it as a routine at all.

The Bottom Line

The whole article series comes down to this: a supplement only helps if you take it, you’ll only keep taking it if it fits your real life, and fitting your life is a design choice the industry has spent decades ignoring. We’re choosing to make it a central point instead. We want to make supplements you’ll use long enough for them to make a difference. We’ve been working toward this for a long time, and we’re glad you’re here for it.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: Why do so many supplement routines fail?
A: Most fail because they ask too much of you. A complicated routine depends on a calm, organized day, and real life rarely works that way. When you have to remember multiple bottles, doses, and timing rules, the routine becomes easy to skip. A better model removes as much friction as possible so consistency feels less like a daily test.

Q: Why does a food-first supplement format make sense?
A: A food-first format connects supplements to the way you already nourish yourself. Instead of treating supplements like a separate clinical task, you add nutrition to a meal you already planned to eat. That makes the routine feel more natural and much easier to repeat.

Q: Are fewer pills really better?
A: Fewer pills can make a routine easier to keep. The point is not to remove useful nutrients. The point is to stop turning supplementation into a pile of capsules that feels like a clinical chore. A simpler format with fewer pills can help you stay consistent without relying so heavily on willpower.

Q: Why is the “mega-dose” approach being reconsidered?
A: More is not always better. The amount listed on a label does not tell you how much your body can absorb or use. Nutrient form, delivery method, and dose all matter. A sensible supplement focuses on what reaches you in a useful form, not just what looks impressive on the bottle.

Q: What’s the main takeaway from this article series?
A: A supplement only helps if you actually take it, and you’ll only keep taking it if the routine fits the life you live. Make it simple, food-first, and staying consistent stops being such a battle.

These statements have not been evaluated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

This article is for general education. The products described are dietary supplements intended to support normal health and wellbeing as part of a food-first lifestyle. They are not a substitute for a varied diet, a healthy lifestyle, or the advice of your physician. If you are pregnant, nursing, taking medication, or managing a health condition, talk with your healthcare provider before beginning any supplement.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Chronic inflammation and cancer are health challenges that affect millions of individuals worldwide. Inflammation is your body’s natural response to injury or infection, characterized by redness, swelling and pain. However, when inflammation becomes persistent, it is associated with tissue damage and with the development of various diseases, including cancer.

Cancer itself is marked by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells, which invade surrounding tissues and form harmful tumors. If left untreated, these conditions significantly impair quality of life and increase mortality rates. Mitochondria, often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell, play a key role in producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency essential for numerous cellular functions.

When mitochondrial function is compromised, ATP production decreases, leading to cellular energy deficits. This reduction in energy impairs the cell’s ability to regulate normal processes, which researchers have linked to conditions that favor chronic inflammation.

According to research published in Immunity,1 impaired mitochondrial function activates the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a key component in the inflammatory response. The researchers propose that this activation sustains inflammation and may create conditions that favor cancer development by allowing damaged cells to survive.

An important note: This work was carried out in cultured cells and in frog tadpoles, so its findings describe a mechanism, not a demonstrated effect in people.

Mitochondrial Function Is Intricately Involved in Inflammation and Cancer

The impact of mitochondrial dysfunction on inflammation and cancer is significant. Studies show that approximately 20% of all cancers are linked to chronic inflammation, highlighting the strong connection between these conditions.2 Additionally, individuals with mitochondrial disorders are at a higher risk of developing inflammatory diseases compared to the general population.3

• Millions of Americans are affected by mitochondrial dysfunction — In the U.S. alone, chronic inflammatory conditions affect close to 125 million adults,4 while cancer remains the second leading cause of death, accounting for more than 613,000 fatalities each year.5 Moreover, research indicates that mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to the resistance of cancer cells to conventional therapies, making treatment more challenging.6

• Why mitochondrial health is drawing research attention — These figures help explain why mitochondrial function has become an active area of investigation in inflammation and cancer research.

Beyond their direct effects, chronic inflammation and cancer are associated with a cascade of additional health problems. Persistent inflammation is associated with cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders, further compounding the burden on affected individuals.

• Mitochondrial dysfunction is under investigation as a factor in cancer — Cancer progression often results in debilitating symptoms such as pain, fatigue and loss of organ function, which drastically reduces life expectancy and quality of life.
Understanding the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in inflammation and cancer not only illuminates possible therapeutic targets but also underscores why researchers are examining mitochondrial health across a wide range of conditions.

• Mitochondrial dysfunction is a key player in the development of NLRP3-related conditions — When mitochondria fail to produce adequate ATP, it sets off a cascade of cellular stress signals.

These signals activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, a protein complex that plays a significant role in the body’s inflammatory response.7 The activation of this inflammasome is linked to various diseases, including chronic inflammation and cancer, as it is associated with uncontrolled cell death and tissue damage.

What the Study Found About Mitochondrial Function and Inflammation

A 2025 study investigated the intricate relationship between mitochondrial function and the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. The research focused on understanding how the inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), the process by which mitochondria produce ATP, affects cell death and inflammation.

The study employed various cell types, including myeloid cells, primary murine microglia, human monocyte-derived macrophages, HCT116 and HeLa cells, as well as conducted in vivo experiments using Xenopus laevis tadpoles.8 Note: This is laboratory and animal research that identifies a mechanism in cultured cells and amphibians; it does not measure outcomes in people, and the findings below should be read on those terms.

• The NLRP3 inflammasome negatively impacts mitochondrial health — The population studied encompassed a diverse range of cells to mimic different physiological conditions. The findings revealed that activators of NLRP3 significantly hinder mitochondrial ATP production, which in turn suppresses apoptosis, the process of programmed cell death.

This suppression allows damaged cells to survive longer than they should, which the authors describe as a plausible contributor to inflammation and, over time, to cancer development. The study demonstrated that when OXPHOS is inhibited, mitochondrial cristae — the inner folds of mitochondria — undergo structural changes that trap cytochrome c, a molecule essential for apoptosis.9

• Other factors that diminish apoptosis — The research also showed that various NLRP3 activators, such as nigericin, imiquimod and extracellular ATP, inhibit apoptosis not by activating the inflammasome directly, but through their disruptive effects on mitochondrial function. These compounds cause the closure of crista junctions, preventing cytochrome c from being released into the cytoplasm, which is a necessary step for apoptosis to proceed.

• The impact of viral infections on mitochondrial function and apoptosis — It was observed that infections like SARS-CoV-2 could strongly suppress apoptosis by inhibiting the cleavage of caspase-3, an enzyme involved in the execution of apoptosis. This suppression not only hinders the removal of infected cells but also facilitates the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, thereby promoting an inflammatory response.10

Why Mitochondrial Function Matters Across Chronic Disease

Biologically, the mechanism at play involves the inhibition of mitochondrial ATP production by NLRP3 activators. When OXPHOS is blocked, mitochondria cannot produce sufficient ATP, leading to the rearrangement of cristae and retention of cytochrome c within the mitochondria. This retention prevents apoptosis, allowing damaged cells to survive and multiply unchecked.

• The process of NLRP3 signaling and activation — The suppression of ATP production provides a necessary signal for the activation of NLRP3. However, full activation of NLRP3 requires a second signal, highlighting the complexity of the inflammasome’s regulation.11

The study also compared the effects of different NLRP3 activators and OXPHOS inhibitors, revealing that while all these agents suppress apoptosis, only certain ones could activate NLRP3 without an additional signal.

• What this may mean for future research — This comparison highlights the intricate relationship between mitochondrial function and inflammasome activation, suggesting that modulating mitochondrial processes may warrant further study as an approach to influencing inflammation.12

The research provides mechanistic evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction, specifically through the inhibition of OXPHOS, plays a pivotal role in suppressing apoptosis and activating the NLRP3 inflammasome.

This dual action not only fosters a proinflammatory environment but also allows for the survival of malignant cells, thereby linking reduced mitochondrial function to the progression of inflammation and cancer.13 As noted on Georgi Dinkov’s blog, the study demonstrates that mitochondrial dysfunction is a key player in both cancer and inflammation:14

“Yet another study, which demonstrates the inseparable link between metabolism and ‘structural’ problems such as cellular integrity and lifecycle (e.g. apoptosis), as well as mysterious processes of systemic inflammation, often occurring without any cause that medicine can identify.

Both of these processes are highly visible in cancer — i.e., lack of apoptosis in ‘cancer’ cells despite their wrecked genome and metabolic dysfunction, as well as their highly inflamed nature that ‘recruits’ nearby cells to the ‘cancer’ process through the cytokines the ‘cancer’ cells produce and releases in the blood.

In other words, all that takes for systemic inflammation and even cancer (i.e., lack of apoptosis in damaged cells) to form is reduced mitochondrial function, resulting in a prolonged drop of ATP levels.

Thus, chronic stress, inflammatory diet (PUFA anyone?), endocrine disruptors, and the ‘modern’ life characterized by never-ending soul-crushing routines are all direct causes of all our ailments as the one thing all those pathological processes have in common is their profoundly suppressive effects on mitochondria/OXPHOS.”

How to Address Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Reduce Inflammation

Your mitochondria power every cell in your body. When they don’t work properly, inflammation rises and damaged cells multiply instead of dying off naturally. The following are general dietary and lifestyle measures associated with mitochondrial and metabolic health. They are not a treatment for any disease, and they are not a substitute for care from your healthcare provider:

1. Eliminate processed foods and vegetable oils — The modern diet is rife with processed foods and vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid (LA) that damage your gut microbiome and promote harmful bacteria.

Though LA is an essential fatty acid required for normal mitochondrial function, when consumed in excess, it can compromise cellular energy production, so the goal is to bring intake back to historical levels, not to remove it entirely. Aim to keep your LA intake within 2 to 5 grams per day from all sources To help track your LA intake, enter your daily meals into the Food Buddy feature in the Pax health platform, and use its Seed-Oil Sleuth feature to check the LA content of individual foods.
In addition to processed foods, avoid nuts and seeds as well to reduce LA intake. It’s also advisable to avoid dining out, since most restaurants use vegetable oils in their cooking, sauces and dressings.
Additionally, limit your consumption of chicken and pork, which are typically high in LA. Replace processed foods with whole, unprocessed foods and healthy fats such as grass fed butter, tallow, and ghee.
2. Optimize carbohydrate intake — Carbohydrates play an important role in supporting mitochondrial function since glucose is the preferred fuel for energy production at the cellular level. Tailor your carbohydrate consumption to support cellular energy by aiming for at least 250 grams of targeted carbohydrates daily for most adults. Individuals with higher activity levels typically require more.

Introduce carbohydrates gradually to allow your gut to adapt, thereby minimizing digestive issues and endotoxin levels. Begin with white rice and whole fruits to nourish beneficial bacteria before considering vegetables, whole grains and starches. Avoiding high-fiber diets initially is important if your gut microbiome is compromised, as excessive fiber will increase endotoxin levels.

If your gut health is severely compromised, focus on easily digestible carbohydrates like dextrose water for the first week or two. Sip it slowly throughout the day to support gradual gut healing.

3. Reduce exposure to environmental toxins — Exposure to synthetic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), estrogen and pervasive electromagnetic fields (EMFs) further impairs your cells’ ability to generate energy efficiently. Energy deficit makes it challenging to sustain the oxygen-free gut environment necessary for beneficial bacteria like Akkermansia to flourish.

Further, a lack of cellular energy creates an environment in your gut that favors endotoxin-producing bacteria, damaging mitochondria and creating a vicious cycle of worsening health. By tackling excess LA, estrogens (xenoestrogens found in everyday items like plastic), EDCs and EMFs, you help restore your cellular energy.

4. Support NAD+ levels — Niacinamide is a precursor to NAD+, which supports mitochondrial energy production. NAD+ also enables proper cell death signaling and supports your immune system’s ability to identify and remove damaged cells.

5. Get safe sun exposure — Daily sun exposure is also important, for two reasons: its near-infrared wavelengths are absorbed by mitochondria to support cellular energy production15,16 and they also stimulate mitochondrial melatonin — a potent antioxidant that neutralizes reactive oxygen species right where they’re generated.17,18

One caveat: It’s important to avoid direct sunlight during peak hours (from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. in most U.S. regions) until you’ve eliminated vegetable oils from your diet for at least four to six months to reduce sunburn risk associated with stored linoleic acid.

Frequently Asked Questions About Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Inflammation

Q: What is the connection between mitochondrial dysfunction and chronic inflammation?

A: When mitochondria underproduce ATP, the body perceives this energy deficit as cellular stress. This stress triggers the NLRP3 inflammasome, a protein complex that amplifies inflammation. Over time, chronic inflammation damages tissues and has been associated with serious conditions including cancer.

Q: How does mitochondrial dysfunction contribute to cancer development?

A: Damaged mitochondria hinder the cell’s ability to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death). When apoptosis is suppressed, abnormal cells survive longer than they should, which in laboratory models allows mutations to accumulate. Researchers are investigating whether chronic inflammation associated with impaired mitochondrial function contributes to cancer progression.

Q: Why is linoleic acid problematic for mitochondrial health?

A: LA, found in most vegetable oils and many processed foods, is essential in small amounts but problematic in excess. Consuming high amounts has been associated with gut dysbiosis (an imbalance of gut bacteria) and increased inflammation. The recommended range is 2 to 5 grams per day — enough to meet the body’s requirement, without the excess typical of a modern diet.

Q: Can improving carbohydrate intake help restore mitochondrial function?

A: Glucose is a key fuel for energy production (via oxidative phosphorylation) in the mitochondria. By incorporating adequate, easily digestible carbohydrates — such as white rice or whole fruits — you’ll be able to support cellular energy and encourage healthier gut bacteria. This approach is especially important if your gut microbiome is already compromised.

Q: What lifestyle strategies can support better mitochondrial function?

A: Key strategies include eliminating processed foods (especially those high in vegetable oils), optimizing carbohydrate intake, reducing exposure to toxins like endocrine disruptors and heavy electromagnetic fields, getting regular sun exposure, and supporting NAD+ levels. These measures are associated with lower inflammation and improved mitochondrial function markers. They are general wellness measures, not a treatment or preventive for any disease.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Vestibular migraine is a neurological condition that affects your balance system, often without producing the severe head pain most people associate with migraine. That distinction is exactly why it goes unrecognized so often. When dizziness is the primary symptom and headache doesn’t occur, neither patients nor physicians think to connect what they are seeing to migraine at all.

This single blind spot explains an enormous amount of unnecessary suffering. People cycle through emergency rooms, ENT offices, and anxiety diagnoses while the actual disorder hides behind symptoms that, taken individually, each look like something else. The pattern is remarkably consistent: each complaint is evaluated in isolation, so no one steps back far enough to see that a single condition ties them together.

Unlike disorders that damage the inner ear itself, vestibular migraine affects the way your brain processes balance and sensory information. Left untreated, attacks interfere with work, driving, travel, and everyday activities, while constant uncertainty often adds another layer of emotional stress.

The good news is that researchers have learned much more about why this disorder develops, why it’s so commonly misdiagnosed, and what clues separate it from other causes of dizziness. Those discoveries begin with a closer look at why vestibular migraine remains hidden in plain sight.

Many People with Vestibular Migraine Spend Months Chasing the Wrong Diagnosis

Despite affecting millions of people, vestibular migraine remains one of the least recognized neurological disorders, a problem a New York Times feature explored in detail.1 The greatest barrier isn’t a lack of symptoms but a failure to recognize what those symptoms mean.

• Many people receive several incorrect diagnoses before anyone identifies vestibular migraine — The article followed Alicia Wolf, whose symptoms began after an overseas trip while she was recovering from a cold and coping with intense work stress. As her dizziness worsened, she developed severe light sensitivity, sound sensitivity, and difficulty using a computer, yet each symptom was treated separately instead of being connected to a single neurological disorder.

An emergency physician diagnosed vertigo, but vertigo is only the sensation of spinning, not the disease itself. It took five months before she finally received the diagnosis that explained everything she had been experiencing.

If you’ve been told your dizziness comes from anxiety, stress, or an unexplained balance disorder, it’s worth asking whether those explanations account for every symptom you experience. The article repeatedly showed that focusing on one complaint at a time often delays the correct diagnosis.

• Vestibular migraine often falls between two medical specialties — Dr. Jeffrey Sharon, an associate professor of otolaryngology at the University of California, San Francisco, explained that the condition occupies “a forgotten corner of medicine” because neurologists usually treat migraine while ear specialists evaluate balance disorders. Patients frequently move between both specialties before someone recognizes that migraine is driving the symptoms.

Sharon called vestibular migraine “the most common disease you’ve never heard of.” He explained that disorders such as Ménière’s disease and persistent postural-perceptual dizziness often resemble vestibular migraine, making diagnosis more challenging.

Formal diagnostic criteria weren’t established until 2012, and according to Cynthia Ryan of the Vestibular Disorders Association, awareness continues to improve even though many clinicians remain unfamiliar with the condition.

• Recognizing the pattern is the first step toward effective treatment — Once specialists connected Wolf’s symptoms under a single diagnosis, her treatment changed completely. Instead of chasing one symptom after another, she received a plan tailored to vestibular migraine, illustrating why identifying the underlying disorder, not simply treating dizziness, is often the turning point in recovery.

Tracking Your Symptoms Reveals the Triggers That Keep Attacks Coming

In an educational resource developed with Dr. Shin Beh, founding director of UT Southwestern Medical Center’s Vestibular and Neuro-Visual Disorders Clinic, the American Migraine Foundation explains how patients and physicians work together to recognize recurring symptom patterns, distinguish vestibular migraine from similar disorders, and build a treatment plan tailored to the individual.2

Rather than focusing only on diagnosis, the guidance emphasizes daily habits that help reduce attacks and improve quality of life.

• The guidance focuses on people whose dizziness interferes with normal life — According to the Foundation, vestibular migraine affects up to 3% of adults and occurs up to five times more often in women than men. Beh notes that many patients are women in their late 30s or 40s with a history of migraine headaches, motion sickness, or a family history of migraine.

Their symptoms commonly interfere with driving, work, travel, and other everyday activities, but identifying personal triggers often becomes the turning point toward better symptom control.

• Keeping detailed records helps uncover patterns that memory misses — Instead of relying on memory after an attack, the Foundation encourages tracking each episode as it happens. Every entry provides another clue about what happened before symptoms started and what circumstances surrounded the attack. Over time, those details often reveal patterns that are impossible to recognize by memory alone and make it easier to build a treatment plan that addresses your specific triggers.

• Common triggers vary from one person to the next — Beh identifies weather changes, poor sleep, emotional stress, menstrual cycle changes, bright or flashing lights, skipped meals, caffeine, chocolate, and alcohol among the most frequently reported triggers. The important lesson is that your trigger pattern is unique.

Finding the factors that repeatedly precede your attacks is far more valuable than assuming someone else’s trigger list applies to you. The Foundation recommends keeping a symptom journal to record what you ate, how well you slept, your stress level, how long symptoms lasted, and any unusual events that occurred before each episode.

• Several overlooked symptoms help distinguish vestibular migraine from other balance disorders — In addition to dizziness, the Foundation highlights brain fog, fatigue, word-finding difficulty, dry mouth, sweating, diarrhea, excessive yawning, tingling, scalp tenderness, and blurred vision as clues that point toward vestibular migraine.

Childhood motion sickness also provides an important clue because many patients describe unusual sensitivity to car rides, boats, or amusement rides years before their migraine symptoms appeared. Likewise, grocery stores, shopping malls, scrolling quickly on a phone, or visually busy environments often make symptoms worse, giving patients additional clues to record in their journals.3

• Comparing your symptoms with similar disorders helps narrow the diagnosis and guide treatment — Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) usually causes spinning episodes lasting less than one minute after specific head movements, while vestibular migraine episodes often continue for minutes, hours, or even days. Ménière’s disease, by comparison, usually produces hearing loss, ringing in one ear, or ear pressure that doesn’t define vestibular migraine.

Beh emphasizes that treatment is never one-size-fits-all, stating, “The key is to find what works for you.” Depending on the individual, conventional treatment often combines lifestyle changes with vitamin B2, magnesium, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), prescription medications, or neuromodulation devices. Consistently tracking symptoms and making gradual adjustments gives you an active role in reducing future attacks instead of simply reacting to them after they begin.

Supporting Your Nervous System Health When You Have Vestibular Migraine

Rather than focusing only on stopping the dizziness, it’s important to figure out what repeatedly pushes your nervous system into an attack. Vestibular migraine rarely appears out of nowhere. Most people develop recognizable patterns, and once you identify them, you gain far more control over your symptoms.

A reasonable goal is to support your nervous system health by encouraging healthy cellular energy production while identifying and reducing the triggers that may contribute to sensory overload.

1. Lower your linoleic acid (LA) intake to support healthier mitochondria — If you make only one dietary change, I recommend starting here. Excess LA, the primary polyunsaturated fat in seed oils, may compromise the integrity of inner mitochondrial membranes where energy production takes place, potentially leaving your brain cells short of the energy they need to process sensory information normally.

It may also mimic estrogen in the body, potentially contributing to estrogen dominance. That hormonal effect may help explain why vestibular migraine disproportionately affects women, particularly during their late 30s and 40s when estrogen levels are already fluctuating.

Estrogen may influence how readily your nervous system relays pain and sensory signals.4 When estrogenic activity rises, whether from hormonal shifts or from external sources, those neurons may fire more easily in response to motion, light, and sound. This is also why menstrual cycle changes rank among the most commonly reported triggers: the same hormonal swings that drive a normal cycle can push an already-sensitized nervous system past its threshold.

I recommend keeping your LA intake below 5 grams per day, and ideally 2 grams, by removing soybean, corn, sunflower, safflower, canola, and cottonseed oils from your diet. That also means avoiding most processed foods and restaurant meals, where these oils are widely used. Instead, prepare food with more stable fats such as grass fed butter, ghee, or tallow.

If you want an easy way to monitor your intake, food-tracking tools with seed oil detection features, such as the Seed Oil Sleuth in the Pax health platform, can help identify hidden sources of LA in your diet and estimate your total daily intake.

2. Reduce the three vestibular migraine triggers that commonly stack together — The sources consistently point to stress, poor sleep, and inflammation as major drivers of vestibular migraine. Rather than trying to eliminate every possible trigger, focus on the ones you control every day.

Build a consistent sleep schedule, plan your diet around whole foods, give yourself recovery time after busy workdays or travel, and identify situations that repeatedly overload your senses. Small daily improvements often produce larger long-term results than dramatic short-lived changes.

3. Give your mitochondria the nutrients they need to produce energy — Frequent migraine attacks often reflect cells that struggle to produce enough energy efficiently. Vitamin D supports healthy nerve signaling and has been studied for its role in modulating inflammatory responses.5 Some researchers have explored whether maintaining adequate vitamin D levels may be relevant for people who experience migraine.6

B vitamins, including riboflavin (vitamin B2), folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, help convert the food you eat into usable cellular energy. Magnesium helps calm overactive nerve signaling, while CoQ10 supports the electron transport chain, the sequence of reactions inside mitochondria that generates most of your cells’ energy.

That energy supply matters directly for vestibular migraine because your brain’s balance-processing centers are among the most energy-demanding structures in your nervous system.

When those neurons struggle to produce energy efficiently, they may become more sensitive to normal sensory input, potentially interpreting routine signals from your eyes, inner ears, and muscles as overwhelming, which may contribute to the sensory overload and dizziness characteristic of vestibular migraine.

Increase magnesium-rich foods such as leafy greens whenever possible. If you use a magnesium supplement, well-absorbed forms such as magnesium glycinate or malate may support cellular uptake. In clinical settings, health care providers have explored the use of intravenous magnesium as a supportive measure during severe migraine episodes.

4. Pay attention to your sensory environment — If bright lights, crowded stores, scrolling on your phone, loud environments, or long hours in front of a computer consistently make you feel worse, start treating those situations as warning signs instead of pushing through them.

I recommend planning short breaks before symptoms escalate. If you notice motion sensitivity while driving or shopping, write it down. Those details help reveal your unique pattern and help you avoid unnecessary attacks.

5. Find the right holistic specialist if your symptoms don’t fit the diagnosis you’ve been given — If you’ve been told you have anxiety, unexplained vertigo, or an inner ear disorder but your symptoms still don’t fully add up, don’t assume the search is over. Vestibular migraine frequently goes unrecognized because many attacks occur without headache.

I recommend keeping detailed records of your symptoms and bringing them to an integrative physician with experience treating migraine and balance disorders. The more complete your history becomes, the easier it is to connect symptoms that once appeared unrelated.

FAQs About Vestibular Migraine

Q: What makes vestibular migraine different from a typical migraine?
A: Vestibular migraine primarily disrupts your balance system instead of causing severe head pain. You may experience dizziness, unsteadiness, motion sensitivity, or a feeling that your surroundings are moving, even if you have little or no headache. Because many people expect migraine to mean headache, the condition is frequently overlooked or mistaken for an inner ear problem or anxiety.

Q: Why does it often take so long to receive the correct diagnosis?
A: Vestibular migraine shares symptoms with several other conditions, including inner ear disorders and anxiety-related dizziness. Because different symptoms are often evaluated separately by different specialists, the underlying neurological cause can remain hidden for months before someone recognizes the overall pattern.

Q: How can you identify what’s triggering your attacks?
A: Keeping a detailed symptom journal is one of the most effective ways to uncover personal trigger patterns. Recording factors such as sleep quality, meals, stress levels, weather changes, menstrual cycle changes, caffeine, alcohol, and visual or sensory exposures can reveal recurring connections that are difficult to remember after an episode has passed.

Q: What symptoms besides dizziness can point toward vestibular migraine?
A: Many people also experience brain fog, fatigue, blurred vision, sensitivity to light or sound, difficulty finding words, motion sickness, or discomfort in visually busy environments such as grocery stores or while scrolling on a phone. Looking at the full combination of symptoms often provides important clues that a balance disorder alone can’t explain.

Q: What steps may help reduce future vestibular migraine attacks?
A: Long-term improvement usually comes from identifying and minimizing your personal triggers while supporting overall nervous system health. Consistent sleep, stress management, avoiding dietary factors that worsen symptoms, tracking sensory triggers, and working with a knowledgeable clinician to develop an individualized treatment plan can all help reduce the frequency and severity of attacks over time.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Estrogen dominance is one of the most misunderstood hormonal imbalances in modern medicine — and it’s costing people their energy, fertility, and peace of mind. You might be told your estrogen is low because your blood levels look normal or even depleted. But if you’re still battling mood swings, fluid retention, fatigue, or persistent inflammation, something deeper is going on.

What most people don’t realize is that hormones don’t just float through your bloodstream — they get trapped inside your tissues. And over time, this hidden buildup of estrogen quietly may disrupt everything from your thyroid to your immune function. Worse, it often shows up alongside rising levels of histamine, serotonin, and inflammatory endotoxins, creating a biochemical storm that conventional lab testing often misses.

This happens in women who can’t lose weight no matter what they eat. In men who feel drained, anxious, and foggy but are told their hormones are “fine.” In couples struggling with infertility while chasing normal blood results. The pattern is always the same: The labs don’t match the symptoms, and the treatments fall short.

If your intuition is telling you something’s off — even when the test results say otherwise — you’re not imagining it. The key is knowing where to look and how to measure what’s really going on. That’s where bioenergetic researcher Georgi Dinkov’s work comes in. He’s uncovering a deeper layer of hormone disruption that could explain exactly what’s keeping you stuck.

Video Link

Estrogen Builds in Your Cells, Not Your Bloodstream

In the video interview above, Dinkov explained a significant blind spot in hormone testing: most doctors measure what’s circulating in your blood but not what’s building up inside your cells.1 Dinkov referenced a study analyzing hair samples from women, drawn from a cohort of 196 women ages 25 to 45.2

According to Dinkov, the study found that estrogen levels increased with age at the tissue level, while key protective hormones like progesterone, thyroid hormone (T3), pregnenolone, and DHEA steadily declined. Hair is made of dead cells and reflects long-term accumulation, which makes it a useful marker for what’s happening inside your tissues over months — not just in the blood for a single moment.

• Blood tests miss the full picture, leading to misdiagnosis — Dinkov emphasized that conventional lab testing fails to detect estrogen overload because blood levels don’t reflect what’s stored in your tissues. Even though your ovaries are failing and blood estradiol levels drop, every other cell in your body can still make estrogen — and they do, he explained.

This means that symptoms like fatigue, swelling, breast tenderness, and even breast cancer are often still estrogen-driven, even when your labs show low estrogen. Blood tests are only showing what’s circulating, not what’s stuck in your tissues, and that’s where estrogen may cause harm.

• Symptoms of estrogen dominance are wrongly blamed on deficiency — Many women are told they need estrogen replacement because their blood levels appear low. But Dinkov warned, “The most popular kind of breast cancer is estrogen receptor-positive. How can you have an estrogen-driven disease if you’re deficient in estrogen?”

He pointed out that tissue estrogen is often high in menopausal women, and that hormone therapy based solely on bloodwork often makes things worse. Estrogen dominance symptoms — like water retention, fatigue, insomnia, and infertility — aren’t signs of deficiency. They’re signs your body is overloaded, and your doctor just isn’t seeing it.

• Hair and nail testing offer a better picture of long-term hormone exposure — According to Dinkov, each half-inch of hair growth reflects about one month of internal biochemistry. This makes it a powerful tool for uncovering chronic hormonal imbalances. Unlike bloodwork, which only captures a moment in time and fluctuates wildly based on stress or food intake, hair and nail analysis shows trends, giving you data you can actually act on.

Tissue Testing Reveals Patterns That Explain Unresolved Health Issues

Dinkov described how many people come to his lab saying, “Something’s not right, but my doctor says all my tests are normal.” In many cases, he finds hidden overloads of estrogen, serotonin, or heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and titanium. Titanium dioxide is in many drugs and supplements, and even tiny doses may increase diabetes risk, he said. Because these substances build up gradually, they’re often missed by blood tests but are detectable in hair or nail analysis.

• Serotonin and histamine track closely with estrogen in stressed or inflamed states — Dinkov noted that elevated serotonin and histamine often show up alongside estrogen in hair and nail samples. These biochemicals all share overlapping pathways that reflect systemic stress and immune activation, he explained.

High serotonin levels are often falsely celebrated as good, but chronically elevated serotonin contributes to inflammation, suppressed metabolism, and gut dysfunction. Similarly, histamine overload mimics allergy symptoms or anxiety, but it’s often a byproduct of deeper biochemical chaos linked to estrogen overload.

• Declining thyroid hormone worsens estrogen buildup — Thyroid hormone T3 plays a key role in metabolizing estrogen and clearing it from tissues. In the study referenced by Dinkov, T3 levels steadily declined with age, right alongside progesterone and DHEA.3

This sets the stage for estrogen to accumulate, because your body lacks the metabolic drive to get rid of it. When thyroid output slows down, estrogen builds up faster, and has been associated with a range of effects, from low energy to mood instability to abnormal cell growth.

• Blood test snapshots miss the bigger picture — Dinkov shared that steroid levels fluctuate minute-by-minute, especially during stressful doctor visits. Some people get nervous and their cortisol spikes, others feel fine at the clinic but are actually under chronic stress the rest of the time.

What matters isn’t your hormone levels during a 10-minute appointment — it’s the pattern over weeks or months. That’s what hair shows you. With each strand, you can trace your biochemical state month by month, uncover what triggered past symptoms, and start making informed changes that actually match your biology.

How to Stop Estrogen, Histamine, and Serotonin from Hijacking Your Health

If your hormones feel “off,” but your labs keep coming back normal, it’s not your imagination — it’s the testing. What’s in your blood isn’t always what’s in your tissues.

Most hormone panels miss the estrogen, serotonin, and histamine that get stuck inside your cells, where they quietly may affect your energy, fertility, mood, and metabolism. If you’re stuck in that frustrating loop — bloated, wired, exhausted, or inflamed — it’s time to shift your strategy. Here’s how to get to the root of what’s actually happening and start undoing the damage.

1. Start with a tissue-level test and get your prolactin checked — If you’ve been told your estrogen is low but still feel estrogen-dominant, you need a better way to measure what’s really happening. Hair or nail analysis gives you a timeline of hormone buildup in your tissues, month by month, allowing you to track stored estrogen, serotonin, cortisol, and even heavy metals.

On top of that, check your prolactin levels. High prolactin is a marker of excess estrogen activity, even when your estrogen looks low on a blood test. If your prolactin is elevated and your thyroid is low, that’s a red flag your cells are swimming in estrogen. This step alone helps you stop chasing the wrong diagnosis and finally start correcting the right imbalance. Talk to your healthcare provider about whether this testing is appropriate for you.

2. Eliminate the things that mimic estrogen — Most people are unknowingly loading their bodies with estrogen-like chemicals from everyday products. Vegetable oils — like canola, soybean, and sunflower — are high in linoleic acid (LA), which promotes estrogen dominance by potentially impairing thyroid function, slowing estrogen detox, and reducing mitochondrial energy production.

Keep your LA intake between 2 and 5 grams per day — the historical norm before industrial seed oil consumption rose, and a level your body still needs for healthy mitochondrial function.

At the same time, ditch endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) lurking in plastics, personal care products, and cleaning supplies. Swap out anything with parabens, phthalates, and synthetic fragrance. Store food in glass. Drink from stainless steel or glass bottles. Don’t microwave food in plastic, and filter your tap water to reduce microplastic exposure.

3. Stop feeding the gut bacteria that keep this cycle going — Estrogen, histamine, and serotonin all get recycled and amplified in your gut, especially if you’re overfeeding oxygen-tolerant bacteria. Beans, leafy greens, cruciferous veggies, and whole grains all ferment quickly and feed the wrong microbes when your gut is compromised.

That drives more bloating, inflammation, and gas. If you have a damaged gut, focus on whole fruit and white rice, which digest cleanly without fermenting too fast. Then, gradually introduce higher-fiber foods that you can tolerate.

Avoid high-histamine foods (like fermented vegetables, leftover meats, or aged cheeses) while your system resets. You’ll also want to support liver detox with collagen-rich foods like gelatin or bone broth — this helps clear out excess histamine and serotonin before they build up in your tissues again.

4. If you’re using hormonal therapies, reassess your load — If you’re on estrogen-based hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or birth control, step back and look at the bigger picture. Bioidentical or not, you’re still adding to your estrogen load. And if your tissues are already saturated, more estrogen — especially without enough progesterone to balance it — just adds fuel to the fire.

Consider switching to natural methods that support your body’s own hormonal rhythm. If you’re in perimenopause or menopause, natural progesterone is especially helpful. It opposes estrogen, stabilizes your mood, and supports your thyroid. This isn’t about giving up support — it’s about choosing the kind that restores your body instead of flooding it.

5. Clear out the estrogen you’ve already stored — To lower your tissue estrogen load, support your body with natural progesterone. Progesterone acts as a natural antagonist to estrogen, helping to balance its effects. Given the tendency toward estrogen dominance, incorporating natural progesterone may help restore a more balanced hormonal ratio.

Once you shift your focus to what’s happening inside your tissues — and not just what shows up in your blood — you’ll finally understand why the old strategies stopped working. And more importantly, you’ll know exactly what to do next.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

FAQs About Estrogen, Histamine, Serotonin, and Endotoxin

Q: Why do my hormone blood tests say I’m low in estrogen, even though I feel estrogen dominant?
A: Because blood tests only measure what’s circulating at that moment — not what’s trapped inside your tissues. Estrogen often builds up inside cells, where it continues to exert strong biological effects. If you’re experiencing symptoms like fatigue, breast tenderness, water retention, or mood swings, you’re likely dealing with high tissue estrogen, even if your lab work says otherwise.

Q: How do histamine, serotonin, and endotoxin relate to estrogen overload?
A: These compounds often rise together and create a compounding effect. Elevated histamine and serotonin worsen symptoms like anxiety, gut issues, and sleep problems. Endotoxins, which come from gut bacteria, amplify the cycle by driving inflammation and hormonal disruption. Estrogen slows gut motility, which increases endotoxin exposure, setting off a cascade of biochemical stressors.

Q: What’s the most accurate way to measure what’s happening with my hormones?
A: Hair and nail analysis may provide a timeline of your tissue hormone levels over weeks or months, something blood tests can’t capture. This method reveals chronic overloads of estrogen, cortisol, serotonin, and even heavy metals, giving you actionable insights into what’s really going on inside your body.
In addition, prolactin is a useful marker of estrogen activity, since estrogen stimulates prolactin production. If your prolactin is high, especially alongside low thyroid, it’s a strong sign that your estrogen load is elevated at the tissue level.

Q: What can I do to lower my estrogen load and feel better?
A: Start by removing vegetable oils (like soybean and canola), which promote estrogen dominance, and avoid endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in plastics and personal care products. Support detox with collagen-rich foods and avoid high-histamine or fermentable foods that feed harmful gut bacteria. Use natural progesterone to help counter estrogen’s harmful effects and support hormonal balance.

Q: Should I be using estrogen-based therapies like birth control or HRT?
A: If your tissues are already overloaded with estrogen, adding more — even if it’s “bioidentical” — worsens the imbalance. Estrogen-based therapies should be reassessed, especially if you’re dealing with unresolved symptoms. Natural progesterone is a safer, more supportive option for rebalancing your hormonal ratio and protecting your thyroid and metabolism.

Everywhere you turn, chlorine is part of your environment, quietly embedded in your drinking water, shower steam, pool systems, and the cleaning products under your sink. It’s praised for its germ-killing power and assumed to be harmless in small doses. But the research on repeated, low-level contact is more nuanced than that — and there is a good deal you can do about it.

From the outside, chlorine looks like it’s doing its job: disinfecting, sanitizing, and sterilizing. But inside your body, it interacts with delicate tissues in ways researchers have linked to oxidative stress, irritation of your lungs and skin, and (in the case of its reaction byproducts) open questions about hormone signaling. You might brush off a sore throat after scrubbing a bathroom or chalk up itchy skin to “pool chemicals,” but those are worth paying attention to rather than ignoring.

People who work around chlorine, like lifeguards, janitors, and health care staff, often don’t realize how much cumulative contact a workday involves. Casual swimmers and children also report symptoms that seem unrelated at first, from cough to recurring skin rashes. Moreover, household tap water and cleaning routines add to the total exposure picture.

Understanding where chlorine exposure happens, how it affects different tissues and what habits make it worse is the first step to protecting your health. What you’ll see next are the ways this chemical interacts with your body — what the evidence supports, where it is thinner than headlines suggest, and the straightforward changes that reduce your exposure.

What the Research Links Chlorine to in Skin, Lungs, and Hormones

Chlorine exposure has been associated with several forms of irritation, and not only dry skin. Chlorine doesn’t stay stable in water — it reacts with organic materials like sweat, skin cells and urine to form toxic byproducts such as chloramines and trihalomethanes, which your body absorbs through your skin or inhales during swimming.1

• Chlorine byproducts are the focus of airway research — Indoor pools are a particular problem. Chloramines accumulate in the air when ventilation is poor, making you breathe them in deeply with every stroke. These airborne compounds irritate the airways, and occupational studies have reported increased airway reactivity among people with sustained exposure.

Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS), an asthma-like condition, has been documented in the toxicological literature — though the cases described there followed acute high-concentration incidents rather than routine pool use. The telltale “chlorine smell” is a practical signal that chloramines have built up in the air and ventilation is inadequate.

• Even brief exposure to pool water has been associated with eye irritation — A 2020 cross-sectional study of 96 swimmers aged 15 to 35 years old at a single university pool in Lampung, Indonesia, found that swimming for more than 15 minutes was associated with roughly 2.9 times the odds of eye irritation.2 Swimmers exposed to chlorine concentrations above the local regulatory standard had about 4.6 times the odds.

Because this is a single-site cross-sectional study, it shows association rather than cause, and the authors note that chlorine levels vary with dosing procedure, bacterial load, and weather.3 These effects are generally attributed to chlorine disrupting away the protective tear film on your eyes, leading to symptoms like redness, burning, and blurry vision.

• Your hair and skin take a hit after every swim — Chlorine can affect the skin’s barrier function, and people with eczema or sensitive skin appear to be more susceptible. A 2003 comparative study in The Journal of Dermatology immersed the forearms of 20 patients with atopic dermatitis and 10 control subjects in 40 degrees Celsius water at 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/L residual chlorine.

Water-holding capacity of the stratum corneum (the outermost layer of the epidermis) decreased significantly at 0.5 mg/L or higher in the atopic group. In the controls, the effect appeared only at 2.0 mg/L. The study measured barrier hydration, not inflammation, and the authors suggest chlorine may play a role in exacerbating atopic dermatitis.4 The result is more itching, redness, and even flares of eczema or pool-related dermatitis.

Your hair isn’t immune either — chlorine is hard on it. Chlorine binds to hair proteins like keratin and dissolves the natural sebum that keeps your hair strong and shiny.5 This leaves strands brittle, dry, and prone to breakage and split ends. Blonde hair is especially vulnerable, often turning green due to the oxidation of copper in pool water.

• Chlorine reacts with sunscreen to create byproducts of largely unknown toxicity — In a 2020 paper published in Environment International, researchers noted that chlorine reacts with avobenzone (a common ingredient in chemical sunscreens) creating chlorinated phenols and acetophenones (acetylbenzene compounds).6

Note that this was a laboratory chemical analysis — gas chromatography–mass spectrometry work plus samples from two Slovenian pools — and it identified more than 60 byproducts.

Here, the authors state plainly that “the toxicity of the majority of these products remain unknown,” while noting that chlorinated phenols and acetophenones are recognized as relatively toxic. Bacterial luminescence testing showed the chlorinated mixtures were more toxic than unreacted avobenzone.7

• Chloramines, more than chlorine itself, are the harder problem — While chlorine itself is a strong disinfectant, it’s the compounds formed when it reacts with organic matter that account for much of the irritation research. These secondary byproducts are more likely to be inhaled or absorbed, and they don’t dissipate quickly — especially in indoor pools with stagnant air. That makes ventilation and post-swim rinsing more useful levers than most people assume.

What the Toxicological Profile Reports at the Cellular Level

According to the Toxicological Profile for Chlorine from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), chlorine is classified as a highly reactive and corrosive gas that damages tissue on contact.8

Even short bursts of high exposure cause immediate injury to your respiratory tract. For people working in water treatment, public sanitation, pool maintenance, or chemical manufacturing, the risk is especially relevant. Swimming or bathing in chlorinated water contributes at much lower concentrations.

• What the profile does and does not conclude about long-term low-dose exposure — The ATSDR profile is more cautious than most secondary coverage of it.

On chronic low-to-moderate exposure it states that “the preponderance of the evidence suggests that no serious long-term respiratory alterations result from acute exposure to low to moderate (up to approximately 20 ppm) concentrations of chlorine gas,” and its long-term occupational studies showed no clear dose-response relationship for respiratory endpoints.9

The profile does document persistent findings at the higher end: airflow obstruction and increased bronchial reactivity in some studies, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness persisting up to 30 months after accidental high-concentration releases. Occupational “gassing” studies found a higher prevalence of obstructive patterns and airway hyperresponsiveness.

Overall, the honest summary is that the evidence is mixed, stronger for repeated higher-concentration exposures than for everyday low-level contact, and that this is an argument for reducing avoidable exposure rather than for alarm.10

Hospital janitors, gym staff, university maintenance crews, and those working in sewage or water treatment are among the most regularly exposed groups.11 Unlike people who choose to swim, these workers often handle chlorine directly, clean with it, or breathe it in from treated surfaces and air systems without adequate protection.

• Chlorine reacts readily with moist tissues in your eyes, mouth and lungs — When inhaled, chlorine reacts with water to form hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids, both corrosive. The ATSDR profile documents this chemistry in water directly; its application to the respiratory tract is described there as a proposed mechanism rather than a confirmed one.

What is well-documented clinically is the symptom picture: burning sensations, coughing, chest tightness, and, in some cases, delayed-onset breathing difficulties.

• Your airways are the first line of contact — The ATSDR notes that damage often begins in your upper airways, with irritation of your nose and throat, then spreads to the tiny air sacs where oxygen exchange happens. In the more severe exposure cases the profile describes, recovery of symptoms did not always mean full recovery of function; RADS persisted for months in some patients. These outcomes are documented after significant exposures, not after routine swimming.

In some of these studies, exposed individuals showed heightened airway responses — lungs that react to small irritants like dust or cold air. The pattern resembles asthma without an allergic trigger. The ATSDR profile also records studies that found no such effect, so this should be read as a documented possibility at meaningful exposure levels rather than an established consequence of everyday contact.

• Unlike many pollutants, chlorine doesn’t just enter your body; it forms new compounds along the way — Chlorine doesn’t float passively through your system. Once inhaled or absorbed, it chemically transforms into reactive species that can stress the tissues they contact.

The ATSDR profile documents that chlorine oxidizes tissue sulfhydryl groups in the respiratory mucosa, and that antioxidant pretreatment reduced lung injury in an animal study — both consistent with oxidative stress playing a role.

It is worth adding bioenergetic context, though. Oxidative stress of this kind is one of the pathways through which environmental exposures are thought to erode mitochondrial energy production, and cellular energy output is the foundation your body repairs and defends itself from. That is the practical reason to reduce an avoidable chemical load rather than absorb it daily.

• The most severe cases occur when chlorine is mixed with other common chemicals — A key risk outlined in the report involves household or industrial settings where chlorine is accidentally mixed with ammonia or acidic cleaners.

This produces chloramine gas, a highly dangerous compound that can cause rapid-onset respiratory distress and, at high concentrations, respiratory failure. This is the one scenario that is a genuine emergency rather than a cumulative-exposure concern — never mix bleach with ammonia-based or acidic cleaners.

Many people clean their homes with bleach-based products in closed spaces like bathrooms or kitchens. Without fans or open windows, that gas accumulates quickly. Ventilation is the simple fix, and it matters most in small, enclosed rooms.12

Simple Swim Habits That Protect Your Skin from Chlorine Damage

Coach Slava Fattakhov, a former professional swimmer and coach, published a step-by-step skin protection guide on his website designed for swimmers, families and anyone regularly exposed to pool water. Note that the guide is practical experience rather than clinical research, so treat it as coaching advice.13 His goal is clear: help people swim often without sacrificing their health.

• Hydrating your skin before swimming makes it less absorbent to pool chemicals — Coach Slava recommends rinsing your body with clean, chlorine-free water before entering the pool — not just for hygiene, but to protect your skin. This initial rinse saturates your skin cells with clean moisture, which he reasons leaves less capacity to take up chlorinated water. While the mechanism is plausible, it hasn’t been formally tested, but the habit only costs a couple of minutes either way.

• Using a barrier cream or natural oil helps seal in moisture — Applying a layer of protection before swimming helps. Coach Slava suggests coconut, jojoba, or sweet almond oil. I suspect pure lanolin or tallow would perform better. Either one forms a physical layer between your skin and the water and slows chlorine’s ability to strip your natural oils. Lanolin is wool-derived, so skip it if you have a known wool-alcohol sensitivity.

• Getting chlorine off quickly is one of the most important steps — Right after your swim, rinse thoroughly with fresh water. Chlorine keeps reacting with your skin even after you leave the pool, so washing it off promptly limits how long that continues. The sooner you rinse, the less contact time chlorine has with your skin barrier.

• Locking in moisture after your swim speeds up recovery — Post-shower, apply a thick, nourishing moisturizer while your skin is still damp. Pure lanolin is a good choice here, and tallow works well, too. Both help restore your skin’s barrier function and retain hydration. This is especially important for frequent swimmers or anyone with dry or aging skin.

• Stay hydrated inside and out to maintain healthy skin — Internal hydration matters as well. Drinking pure, filtered water before and after swimming supports overall skin hydration, and well-hydrated skin generally tolerates irritants better than dry skin does.

Simple Ways to Protect Your Body from Chlorine Exposure

If chlorine exposure is drying out your skin, interfering with your breathing or making your eyes sting every time you swim, it’s time to change your routine. Whether you’re a swimmer, a parent of water-loving children or someone working around chlorinated environments, these steps will help you take control.
The good news is that chlorine exposure is one of the more controllable environmental variables in daily life. A handful of changes cut most of it out, and none of them are expensive or complicated. Here’s what I recommend:

1. Switch to a saltwater pool or skip indoor pools entirely — Chlorine exposure hits hardest when it’s concentrated and trapped, like in a steamy indoor pool. That “chlorine smell” is chloramines building up in the air.

Saltwater systems generate chlorine from salt electrolytically rather than dosing it in directly, which typically means lower free-chlorine levels and less chloramine odor — but they still produce chlorine and its byproducts, so they reduce exposure rather than eliminate it. If you have the option, outdoor saltwater pools are a much easier choice for your lungs, skin and eyes.

2. Apply pure lanolin as a pre-swim skin barrier — If you’re going to be in chlorinated water, coat your skin with pure lanolin or tallow first. Both create a thick, natural barrier, and both are preferable to petroleum jelly. This step helps hold moisture in and puts a physical layer between chlorinated water and your skin. If you’ve reacted to wool products before, use tallow rather than lanolin.

3. Install a whole-house water filter to reduce chlorine at home — You’re not just exposed to chlorine in pools — it’s also in your shower and tap water. That said, a high-quality whole-house filtration system can remove chlorine before it reaches your skin or lungs.

Inhaling chlorine steam during hot showers is a frequently overlooked route of exposure, since hot water volatilizes chlorine and the bathroom is usually the smallest, least-ventilated room in the house.

4. Rinse off before and after swimming — Always rinse with clean, fresh water before getting into the pool. Hydrated skin absorbs less chlorine. After you’re done, shower immediately using a natural, fragrance-free cleanser. Then, moisturize while your skin is still damp to lock in hydration. This two-step rinse routine reduces chlorine’s contact time and minimizes its irritating effects.

5. Avoid chemical sunscreens — Chlorine reacts with certain sunscreen ingredients like avobenzone to form chlorinated byproducts whose toxicity is largely uncharacterized. If you want sun protection while in the water, a natural mineral-based sunscreen is the better option. Clothing works too.

FAQs About Chlorine Exposure

Q: What are the long-term effects of chlorine exposure?

A: Long-term exposure to chlorine has been associated with irritation of the lungs, skin, and eyes, and occupational research has reported higher rates of airway reactivity and asthma-like conditions among heavily exposed workers.

Q: Where does chlorine exposure commonly happen?

A: Most people encounter chlorine through swimming pools, tap water, household cleaning products and workplaces like hospitals, gyms, and water treatment facilities. Indoor pools and poorly ventilated cleaning areas are especially risky because chloramines build up in the air where ventilation is inadequate.

Q: How does chlorine harm my body at the cellular level?

A: Once chlorine contacts moist tissues in your eyes, lungs, or skin, it forms corrosive acids that irritate and can injure cells. Toxicological data also point to oxidative stress — chlorine oxidizes sulfhydryl groups in respiratory tissue, and antioxidants reduced injury in animal work.

Oxidative stress of this kind is one of the pathways through which environmental exposures are thought to burden mitochondrial energy production, which is why lowering an avoidable chemical load is worth the small effort it takes.

Q: What steps can I take to protect myself from chlorine?

A: Use pure lanolin or tallow as a barrier on your skin before swimming. Shower with filtered water and moisturize immediately after. Avoid chemical sunscreens and use a high-quality whole-house filtration system to reduce chlorine in your drinking water and shower. Whenever possible, choose saltwater pools or swim outdoors, and never mix chlorine-based cleaners with other products.

Q: Who has the highest risk for chlorine-related health issues?

A: People working in sanitation, pool maintenance, hospitals, and gyms face the highest cumulative exposure, along with frequent swimmers and children. Anyone exposed to chlorine regularly, especially in poorly ventilated environments, should take steps to minimize contact and support skin, lung, and overall health.

None of this needs to keep anyone out of the water — swimming is excellent movement, and outdoor swimming pairs it with the sun exposure your mitochondria depend on. The goal is to enjoy it while keeping the chemical load low.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Your body runs on a roughly 24-hour internal clock called the circadian rhythm, and it governs far more than when you feel sleepy or wide awake — it may also affect when you’re most vulnerable to a stroke. For a lot of people, the riskiest stretch falls in the hours right after they get out of bed.

Researchers who investigated stroke incidents keep noticing the same pattern: Cases tend to bunch up in the morning rather than spreading evenly across the day. With strokes now one of the leading causes of death (more than 795,000 Americans have a stroke every year1) and disability in the U.S.,2 knowing this pattern can help sharpen how quickly you and the people around you catch the warning signs.

So what is it about the morning that seems to tip the scales toward a stroke? The trail leads to the daily swings in your blood pressure, changes in how easily your blood clots, and the internal timekeeping system that helps coordinate both.

Ischemic Strokes Cluster in the Morning, While Nighttime Strokes Tend To Be More Severe

A 2026 systematic review published in the International Journal of Cardiology Cardiovascular Risk and Prevention set out to map when strokes actually occur and whether the timing lines up with how severe they turn out to be.3 The researchers combed six databases including PubMed, Embase, and Scopus, starting with 1,010 records and eventually narrowing it down to 58 observational studies for analysis. Each study was graded for quality using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, a scoring tool for observational research.

The researchers looked at two types of stroke: ischemic stroke, which occurs when a clot or plaque blocks a vessel feeding the brain, and hemorrhagic stroke, caused when a vessel ruptures and bleeds; the review noted that ischemic strokes make up roughly 87% of cases.

• Ischemic strokes concentrated in the morning hours — Across the included studies, ischemic strokes tended to occur between 6:00 a.m. and noon, with some studies instead recording a bimodal pattern, meaning two peaks — one in the morning and a second in the evening.

To keep comparisons consistent, the reviewers grouped the day into four blocks: night (midnight to 5:59 a.m.), morning (6:00 to 11:59 a.m.), afternoon (noon to 5:59 p.m.), and evening (6:00 to 11:59 p.m.). The morning clustering showed up repeatedly across different research teams and countries, which is part of why the authors treated it as a reasonably well-supported trend rather than a one-off result.

• One large analysis put numbers on the morning spike — The review cited a meta-analysis of 11,816 stroke patients reporting that risk ran significantly higher during the 6:00 a.m.-to-noon window than across the remaining 18 hours of the day.

In that analysis (which will be discussed in detail in the next section), the risk of ischemic stroke was elevated by about 89%, hemorrhagic stroke by 52%, and transient ischemic attack (also known as a “mini-stroke”) by 80% during the morning hours. The overnight stretch from midnight to 6:00 a.m. showed the opposite: notably lower risk for every stroke type compared with the rest of the day.

• Hemorrhagic stroke timing was less consistent — The picture for bleeding strokes was mixed. Some studies found the highest incidence in the early morning, with one reporting that roughly 48% of intracerebral hemorrhage cases occurred between 6:00 a.m. and noon, while others pointed to a peak in the late evening or nighttime.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage, a bleed in the space around the brain, showed a morning peak in some reports plus a secondary evening peak in others. The authors were candid that this inconsistency likely reflects different underlying mechanisms and patient factors.

“Multiple studies demonstrated that the incidence of hemorrhagic stroke exhibits a circadian variation; however, this rhythmic pattern is not entirely consistent and may differ according to stroke subtype, patient-specific characteristics, and environmental influences,” they noted.4

• Strokes that began at night tended to be more severe — Beyond counting cases, the review examined outcomes and found that nocturnal and early-morning strokes were associated with more serious symptoms and poorer recovery. Patients with nighttime onset often arrived with higher scores on the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, a measure where higher numbers mean greater neurological impairment.

• The authors suggested this may owe partly to delays in treatment — A stroke that starts during sleep can go unwitnessed and unrecognized until hours later. They also noted that not every study agreed — one study, for example, found no significant difference in three-month mortality by time of onset. “Wang et al. reported no significant difference regarding three-month mortality rates or early reperfusion success among patients with strokes occurring at different times,” the researchers said.

• Daily swings in blood pressure and clotting offer a plausible explanation — For the morning pattern, the review pointed to normal circadian physiology. Blood pressure typically falls overnight and rises rapidly on waking, and that abrupt shift may destabilize blood flow in the brain.

The authors also cited evidence that platelet activity and clotting factors climb in the morning, which can raise the chance of a vessel-blocking clot. Because the included studies spanned varied populations and settings, the reviewers cautioned that these trends need further research to fully untangle.

An Earlier Analysis Found a Morning Spike Across Every Type of Stroke

The morning clustering seen in the broader review didn’t come out of nowhere — much of it traces back to an earlier landmark meta-analysis. Published in 1998 in Stroke (the journal of the American Heart Association), the research pulled together decades of scattered reports to ask a single question: Is there a time of day when strokes are more likely to begin?5

• The analysis pooled 31 studies covering 11,816 strokes — The author gathered published reports from around the world that recorded when stroke symptoms began, then sorted them by time of onset and, where possible, by stroke type. When a study didn’t give precise timing, those strokes were spread evenly across the day on purpose, a conservative choice that makes any real pattern harder to detect rather than easier.

In other words, the method was tilted against finding a morning spike, which makes the result that follows more convincing. The strokes were divided into standardized blocks such as midnight to 6 a.m., 6 a.m. to noon, noon to 6 p.m., and 6 p.m. to midnight.

• Strokes of all types spiked between 6 a.m. and noon — Across every way the data were sliced into three-, four-, or six-hour windows, a statistically significant morning pattern appeared. Compared with what you’d expect if strokes fell evenly across the day, there was a 49% increase in strokes of all types during the 6 a.m.-to-noon window, with a 95% confidence interval of 44% to 55%.

Measured against the normalized rate for the other 18 hours of the day, that same morning excess worked out to a 79% increase.

• The morning window ran higher for ischemic, hemorrhagic, and mini-strokes alike — When broken out by type, all three subtypes showed a significantly elevated morning risk. Ischemic strokes were 55% more likely between 6 a.m. and noon across 8,250 cases, while hemorrhagic strokes were 34% more likely in that window across 1,801 cases.

Meanwhile, transient ischemic attacks were 50% more likely across 405 cases. These per-type figures are the same analysis the 2026 review drew on when it reported the morning excess above.

• The quietest stretch was overnight, while the morning share was sizable — The six-hour block from midnight to 6 a.m. carried the lowest risk, with 29% fewer strokes than expected under an even distribution, or a 35% drop compared with the other 18 hours. Putting the excess in plain terms, the author estimated that roughly 1 in every 8 strokes is attributable to the morning surge, breaking down to about 1 in 7 ischemic strokes, 1 in 10 hemorrhagic strokes, and 1 in 8 transient ischemic attacks.

• These findings overturned an older assumption about sleep — For years, the prevailing view held that strokes mostly struck during sleep and therefore weren’t a medical emergency worth rushing to catch. This analysis contradicted that idea, indicating that regardless of stroke type, most patients are awake when symptoms begin. The author argued that recognizing new neurological deficits early warrants treating the event as an emergency, or a “brain attack.”.
• Daily blood pressure swings offer the leading explanation — The author pointed to blood pressure as one of the most powerful stroke risk factors, noting that its natural daily rhythm closely parallels the timing of stroke onset. Blood pressure and heart rate climb roughly 20% in the hours around waking, the same stretch tied to higher rates of stroke, heart attack, and sudden cardiac death.

The morning surge also lines up with daily patterns in physical activity and stress hormones such as cortisol and catecholamines.

Because the underlying reports were rarely population-based, could be subject to publication bias, and relied on patients or witnesses recalling when symptoms started, the conclusions come with real limits. The data weren’t adjusted for wake times or for people working night and evening shifts, so more research was needed to refine the picture.

How the Shift from Sleep to Waking Raises Stroke Risk

The two featured studies establish that strokes favor the morning; but to provide better understanding, it helps to know the many small biological shifts that stack up in those hours — when you transition from sleeping to waking — and how they raise your risk.

• The move from sleep to waking strains the heart and vessels — During sleep, blood pressure and heart rate drop, but when you wake up, both jump back up. That abrupt swing can stress blood vessels and raise stroke risk.

Heart rate variability, the natural variation in time between heartbeats and a rough gauge of how well the heart adapts to stress, tends to run higher at night and lower in the morning, with lower readings linked to greater stress and stroke risk. In addition, cortisol, a stress hormone that peaks in the morning, can push blood pressure up during the same window, compounding the effect.6

• Overnight dehydration may thicken the blood — Fluid balance is another morning factor that has been associated with stroke risk.7 Because you go for hours without drinking during sleep, the body’s fluid levels are lowest on waking, which can decrease blood volume and increase viscosity. Thicker, stickier blood is described as more prone to clotting,8 which ties overnight dehydration to the morning clot-formation pattern. Spreading fluid intake across the day may help keep the blood more fluid.

• Seasonal factors add to the morning load — Winter carries a higher stroke risk, especially in the mornings, because cold temperatures cause blood vessels to narrow, which can raise blood pressure. Large temperature swings could also be a stressor, since the body works harder to stay warm, adding strain to the heart and circulation.

• Timing patterns shift across age, gender, and ethnicity — In particular, older adults tend to have strokes in the morning, which is attributed partly to blood pressure changes and stiffer, less flexible blood vessels with age. Women may experience strokes at different times than men, possibly related to hormonal changes, although more research is needed on the gender difference.

African Americans also face a higher stroke risk than other groups, with different timing patterns, tied to a mix of genetic, lifestyle, and social factors.

• The time of day can shape how fast help arrives — Figures suggest hospital staffing and readiness vary by hour, with higher daytime staffing and faster average response, and lower staffing overnight with slower response. This may be one reason nighttime strokes can fare worse, since recognition and care may lag.9

BE FAST — The Warning Signs That Matter Most When a Stroke Strikes

A stroke happens when a clot or blockage keeps part of the brain from getting the blood it needs. Because a starved brain region simply stops working, the symptom of this condition is often something disappearing rather than a new pain or sensation. Loss of vision, speech, movement, sensation, or balance are key signs, especially when they show up on one side of the body.10 Hence, it pays off to be able to recognize these signs when they happen, so you can act fast.

• The “BE FAST” acronym packs the signs into six letters — A HuffPost article lays out a memory aid that turns stroke symptoms into something you can recall under pressure: BE FAST, which stands for:

◦ Balance — Sudden loss of coordination
◦ Eyes — Blurred vision or vision loss
◦ Face — Drooping on one side
◦ Arm — Weakening of the limbs
◦ Speech — Speech difficulty or slurring of words
◦ Time — Call 911 right away

As soon as any of these appear, contact emergency medical services and get help immediately.
• Sudden onset is what separates a stroke from a slower problem — Dr. Gregory Albers, a professor of neurosurgery and director of the Stanford Stroke Center in California, said that stroke symptoms come on instantly rather than building gradually over days. “So, if your arm has been getting weaker for days … that’s not a stroke. It’s your arm is fine, and then bam, all of a sudden it gets weak,” he explained.11

• Speed changes what treatment is even possible — The reason BE FAST hinges on that final “T” is that stroke care runs on a tight clock. Dr. Dileep Raghvendra Yavagal, a professor of clinical neurology and neurosurgery at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, noted that strokes are treatable.

Clot-busting medication can be given up to four-and-a-half hours after symptoms begin, he explained, and beyond that window a procedure called a thrombectomy can physically remove the clot to restore blood flow. The earlier a stroke patient seeks emergency assistance, the more treatment options are available.

Everyday Habits That Support a Lower Stroke Risk

Experts view stroke as a largely avoidable health condition — “In 2026, stroke is highly preventable,” Yavagal said.12 Following healthy lifestyle habits, including consuming a nutritious diet, doing regular physical activity, avoiding tobacco, getting adequate sleep, and keeping blood sugar and blood pressure in healthy ranges, is linked to a substantially lower risk of stroke. Below are some of my recommendations:

1. Move your body regularly — Exercise helps normalize your blood sugar and improve insulin and leptin receptor signaling, which in turn supports healthy blood pressure — a key piece of the stroke-risk picture.

In a 2013 study published in Stroke, walking at least three hours a week was associated with lower stroke risk in women, not only compared with being inactive but also compared with high-intensity cardio.13 If you’ve already had a stroke, staying active is linked to better physical and mental recovery and a lower chance of a repeat event.

2. Get the right amount of sleep — A 2020 study published in Neurology noted that regularly sleeping nine hours or more was associated with a 23% higher stroke risk, compared with sleeping seven to eight hours a night. Sleeping less than six hours showed no significant effect.14

Long midday naps of more than 90 minutes were also linked to a 25% higher risk than napping 30 minutes or less. People who both slept nine-plus hours and napped more than 90 minutes carried the highest risk, an 85% increase over moderate sleepers and nappers. Poor sleep cuts the other way too: a genetic predisposition to insomnia has been associated with higher rates of large-artery, small-vessel, and cardioembolic stroke.15

3. Eliminate “diet” soda and energy drinks — A 2017 study published in Stroke reported that regular consumption of artificially sweetened “diet” soda has been linked to a significantly higher 10-year stroke risk.16 Caffeine-loaded energy drinks are another concern, since they can make the blood stickier, which may contribute to clot formation.

Case reports have described cardiovascular events following heavy energy-drink consumption, though the size of any added risk is not well established. Reaching for water, mineral-rich whole fruit, or other real-food options in their place is a simple daily swap.

4. Build in stress relief into your routine — A 2008 study found that higher psychological distress tracked with greater stroke risk: For every notch lower a person scored on a well-being scale, their risk rose by about 11%, and the link was most pronounced for fatal strokes.17

Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) is a favorite tool for defusing stress in the moment, and prayer, meditation, laughter, and yoga are other approaches with strong track records. Finding one that fits your routine makes it easier to stick with.

5. Reconsider alcohol and tobacco — Heavy drinking in midlife has been flagged as a stroke risk factor — in one study, people averaging more than two drinks a day showed a 34% higher risk than those averaging less than half a drink.18 In one analysis of identical twins, heavy drinking shortened the time to stroke by roughly five years.

Meanwhile, smoking ranks among the major risk factors for stroke, so quitting is one of the highest-impact moves available if you’re working to bring your risk down.19

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Strokes

Q: What time of day are strokes most common?
A: Research consistently points to the morning, generally between 6 a.m. and noon, as the window when strokes are most likely to begin. A meta-analysis of 11,816 strokes found a significant morning increase across every stroke type, and a systematic review of 58 studies reported the same clustering for ischemic strokes, the clot-caused type. Strokes can still happen at any hour, but the early-morning stretch stands out in the data.

Q: Why are strokes more common in the morning?
A: Researchers attribute the pattern mainly to your body’s natural circadian rhythm. Blood pressure typically dips overnight and rises as you wake, and that abrupt swing can strain blood vessels. Studies also indicate that the blood tends to be “stickier” and more prone to clotting in the early hours, while the body’s clot-dissolving mechanisms work less effectively.

Q: How can I recognize the warning signs of a stroke?
A: Stroke specialists recommend the acronym BE FAST: B for balance loss, E for eye or vision changes, F for facial drooping, A for arm weakness, S for speech difficulty, and T for time to call 911. A key feature is that stroke symptoms come on suddenly rather than building gradually over days, often affecting one side of the body. Because the tell is usually something that abruptly stops working, quick recognition matters.

Q: Are strokes that happen at night more dangerous?
A: Some evidence suggests strokes that begin overnight are associated with greater severity and poorer recovery. Part of the reason appears to be delayed treatment, since a stroke that starts during sleep can go unwitnessed and unrecognized until hours later. Not every study agreed, though — at least one found no significant difference in three-month mortality by time of onset.

Q: Is stroke actually preventable?
A: Experts describe stroke as largely preventable, with one specialist estimating roughly an 80% chance of prevention through healthy lifestyle habits. Everyday factors linked to lower risk include regular physical activity, adequate sleep, stress management, moderating alcohol, and avoiding tobacco. Keeping blood pressure, blood sugar, and other markers in healthy ranges is also part of the picture.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Test Your Knowledge with Today’s Quiz!
Take today’s quiz to see how much you’ve learned from yesterday’s Mercola.com article.

What can poor sleep disrupt in your digestive system?

Stomach acid production
Normal bowel rhythms
Poor or irregular sleep can disrupt the daily rhythm that helps move stool through the colon and keep bowel movements regular. Learn more.
Nutrient absorption
Liver enzyme activity

1 Many PFAS-containing medicines can break down into which persistent compound?

Acetic acid
Lactic acid
Citric acid
Trifluoroacetic acid
Many per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-containing medicines can degrade into trifluoroacetic acid, a highly persistent compound that is difficult to remove from water. Learn more.

2 What caused most GLP-1 medication exposures reported to U.S. poison centers?

Allergic reactions
Accidental dosing mistakes
A Journal of Medical Toxicology analysis found that most glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) reports involved therapeutic errors, such as taking the wrong dose or injecting too often. Learn more.
Intentional overdoses
Drug interactions

3 What can happen when the intestinal barrier becomes more permeable?

Digestion stops completely
Stomach acid production increases to aid digestion
Nutrient absorption becomes faster and higher
More substances can pass through the gut lining
A more permeable intestinal barrier allows substances that normally stay inside the digestive tract to pass more easily through the lining. Learn more.

4 Which factors help determine whether a supplement formula makes scientific sense?

Bottle size, label design, and price
Flavor, packaging, and serving size
Brand recognition, color, and texture
Nutrient form, dose, absorption, and delivery
Nutrient form, amount, absorption, and delivery all affect how well a supplement is designed to provide its intended nutrients. Learn more.

5 Which groups showed a stronger link between poor muscle health and Type 2 diabetes?

Men and adults over 70
Teenagers and older men
Women and adults younger than 60
Women and adults younger than 60 showed a greater increase in Type 2 diabetes risk when poor muscle health occurred with excess body fat. Learn more.
Men and adults younger than 40

6 Which of these habits can make tonsil stones more likely to form?

Drinking water regularly
Chewing crunchy foods
Gargling with salt water
Mouth breathing
Mouth breathing reduces saliva, so bacteria and food debris are less likely to be washed away before they collect in the tonsils. Learn more.

7 When is the colon naturally more active?

After waking up
The colon naturally becomes more active after waking, which helps move stool toward the rectum and makes morning bowel movements more common. Learn more.
Late at night
During deep sleep
Before bedtime

Test Your Knowledge with
The Master Level Quiz

1 Which household item can be a source of PFAS exposure?

Nonstick cookware
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) can be found in nonstick cookware, grease-resistant food packaging, stain-resistant products, waterproof clothing, and contaminated drinking water. Learn more.
Cast-iron cookware
Glass containers
Wooden utensils

2 Which probiotic strain was highlighted for its potential heart-health benefits?

Lactobacillus casei
Bacillus subtilis
Lactobacillus acidophilus
A review published in Cureus evaluated 10 human studies and highlighted Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium lactis for effects on blood pressure, cholesterol, and inflammation. Learn more.
Saccharomyces boulardii

3 After PFAS-containing medicines are excreted, where can they enter the environment?

Household air filters
Wastewater systems
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from medicines can enter wastewater after excretion and eventually reach rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Learn more.
Your lawn and surrounding outdoor areas
Soil fertilizers

4 Which type of exercise helps signal the body to preserve muscle during weight loss?

Stretching exercises
Resistance training
Resistance training, including weights, bands, squats, and pushups, helps signal the body to maintain muscle during weight loss. Learn more.
Breathing exercises
Balance training

5 How many adults in the U.S. are affected by fatty liver disease today?

Nearly 4 in 10
Fatty liver disease affects nearly 4 in 10 adults in the U.S., making it a common metabolic health concern. Learn more.
About 1 in 10
Nearly 6 in 10
About 8 in 10

6 Which type of fat became much more common in the modern food supply with the rise of seed oils?

Monounsaturated fat
Saturated fat
Omega-3 fatty acid
Linoleic acid (LA)
Linoleic acid (LA) intake rose sharply as seed oils became widely used in packaged foods, restaurant meals, sauces, dressings, and fried foods. Learn more.

7 Which type of food is a common source of xanthan gum?

Packaged processed foods
Xanthan gum is commonly found in packaged foods such as sauces, salad dressings, gluten-free products, protein powders, frozen meals, and snacks. Learn more.
Fresh whole fruits
Plain cooked meats
Fresh vegetables

8 Which antidepressant has been linked to more severe withdrawal symptoms after long-term use?

Fluoxetine
Sertraline
Paroxetine
Paroxetine has a shorter half-life, and shorter-acting antidepressants are generally associated with more frequent withdrawal symptoms than longer-acting drugs such as fluoxetine. Learn more.
Escitalopram

9 At what age was smartphone ownership linked to higher risks of depression, obesity, and insufficient sleep?

8
10
12
Smartphone ownership at age 12 was associated with higher risks of depression, obesity, and insufficient sleep, with earlier ownership linked to greater risk. Learn more.
15

10 Which supplement form can be mixed directly into food or beverages?

Powder
Powdered supplements can be stirred or sprinkled into foods and beverages, providing an alternative for people who have difficulty swallowing pills or capsules. Learn more.
Capsule
Softgel
Tablet

11 Which factor is not a driver of chronic inflammation?

Endotoxins
Cytotoxins
Endotoxins, excess linoleic acid, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and electromagnetic fields are associated with chronic inflammatory signaling. Cytotoxins are not included among these drivers. Learn more.
Excess linoleic acid (LA)
Electromagnetic fields (EMFs)

12 Which vitamin deficiency is linked to a higher risk of fractures and osteoporosis?

Vitamin K
Vitamin K helps activate proteins involved in bone mineralization and calcium use. Low vitamin K levels are associated with weaker bones and a higher fracture risk. Learn more.
Vitamin C
Vitamin B12
Vitamin E

13 Which type of training can help build muscle when heavy weights are not an option?

Stretching exercises
High-intensity interval training
Long-distance walking
Blood flow restriction training
Blood flow restriction (BFR) training uses light resistance with specialized bands to stimulate muscle growth while placing less stress on the joints. Learn more.

14 Consumption of foods rich in what dietary component can help increase butyrate production?

Protein
Fiber
Gut bacteria ferment dietary fiber to produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that helps fuel colon cells and support the gut barrier. Learn more.
Saturated fat
Cholesterol

15 Which brain change has been linked to alcohol consumption?

Enlarged brain ventricles
Increased gray matter
Vascular brain lesions
Alcohol consumption was associated with a higher risk of vascular brain lesions, with the risk increasing further among heavier drinkers. Learn more.
Thicker cerebral cortex

16 Which home method can help loosen a small tonsil stone?

Using a toothpick to get deep into the tonsils
Gargling with warm salt water
Gargling with warm salt water is one of the gentlest ways to loosen small tonsil stones without injuring the delicate tissue. Learn more.
Scraping it with a sharp tool
Pressing deeply into the tonsil

17 Which farming approach uses practices like rotational grazing and minimal soil disturbance to improve soil health?

Conventional agriculture
Monoculture farming
Regenerative agriculture
Regenerative agriculture uses practices that build soil organic matter, support biodiversity, improve water retention, and reduce reliance on synthetic inputs. Learn more.
Intensive organic operations

18 Which feeding option provides both nutrition and natural immune support?

Pasteurized cow’s milk
Soy-based infant formula
Hydrolyzed infant formula
Breast milk
Breast milk provides nutrients along with antibodies and other components that support a baby’s developing immune system. Learn more.

19 What can make bowel movements easier while sitting on the toilet?

Raising your knees above your hips
Raising your knees above your hips creates a more natural squatting position, helping relax the muscles involved in passing stool. Learn more.
Leaning far backward
Keeping your feet flat and low
Holding your breath

20 Which type of diet may interfere with healthy thyroid function?

Low-carbohydrate diet
Very low-carbohydrate and low-calorie eating patterns can affect thyroid hormone production and conversion, especially when energy intake is too low. Learn more.
Mediterranean diet
High-fiber diet
Balanced whole-food diet

21 If fiber-rich foods upset your gut, which foods may be easier to start with?

Beans and bran cereal
White rice and whole fruits
White rice and whole fruits are easier to digest and may be better tolerated while bloating, pain, or irregular bowel movements improve. Learn more.
Raw vegetables and lentils
Whole grains and nuts

Editor’s Note: This article is a reprint. It was originally published June 16, 2024.

Endocrinology is a branch of medicine that focuses on the study of hormones and the glands and tissues that produce them. It addresses the intricate balance of hormones that regulate many of your body’s essential functions, and how to keep them in the proper equilibrium. I interviewed U.K. clinician Keith Littlewood on this topic, revealing details that may be useful for understanding and supporting your endocrine health.

Littlewood, who splits his time between consulting with patients and completing a Ph.D. in endocrine research, bases much of his work on Ray Peat and has extensive clinical experience on how to improve energy, metabolism, digestion, sleep, fertility and other key foundations of optimal health.

The Importance of Understanding Thyroid Physiology

One of Littlewood’s areas of focus is looking at how endocrine disruptors affect thyroid physiology at the molecular level and the super molecular level. Of the many hormones in your body, thyroid hormones are perhaps the most important, as they regulate your metabolism and are required for nearly every physiological process in your body. When your thyroid levels are unbalanced, the effects can be wide-ranging.

Thyroid dysfunction has been associated in the clinical literature with a range of health issues, including fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, eczema, gum disease, and autoimmune disorders. However, observational associations of this kind do not establish that thyroid imbalance causes these conditions.

This is because your thyroid impacts various parts of your body, making the symptoms of dysfunction diverse. Your hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) that triggers your pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) that then causes your thyroid to release T4.

Approximately 90% of your thyroid hormone is released in the relatively inactive form T4, according to standard endocrinology references.1 Deiodinase enzymes then convert T4 into the active form, T3 — primarily in your liver and kidneys, though the conversion also takes place in other tissues. Thyroid problems may exist, however, even when standard thyroid function tests show normal results. Littlewood says:

“TSH can be just a completely redundant test for multiple reasons … even abundance of T4 can be problematic and stimulate certain pathways. And that’s really why … T3 should be being looked at as opposed to TSH because stressed people have generally suppressed TSH values.

Chronic dieters can have suppressed TSH values. There are hormone-disrupting chemicals in the environment that can suppress how thyroid function is being modulated.

And I think that makes it even more complex when a clinician would just look at TSH and T4 and go, ‘Well, your blood tests are completely normal, let’s move on to something else or it’s in your head.’ This is a common theme that I’ve seen well over a decade now with clients who’ve had their blood tests and just because they looked at these two markers, they’re euthyroid [normal thyroid function] rather than potentially hypothyroid.

… just looking at TSH and T4 on its own, it can be very muddy water to look into. That’s why the relatively crude test of temperature and pulse can be pretty useful. But again, you want other markers as well. You want cholesterol, you might want to look at prolactin, other hormone levels, you might want to look at lactate, all of these other markers that could be useful in getting you to understand what thyroid is actually doing.”

While people with subclinical hypothyroidism will often have normal lab work, low body temperature and pulse rate have long been used clinically as supporting signs worth investigating — though neither is diagnostic on its own. Also, a TSH toward the lower end of the reference range is often viewed favorably, but it can also be suppressed by cortisol and adrenaline — so, a low reading is not automatically reassuring. Checking your temperature and pulse after eating is one way to double-check that.

A cholesterol test can also be helpful. In the bioenergetic literature, elevated cholesterol (mid- to high-200s) is interpreted as a possible sign that the conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones is sluggish, and low cholesterol is associated with infection. These interpretations are not established in conventional endocrinology and are best reviewed with a clinician who knows your history. If you decide to go on this route, talk to your health care provider about whether this testing is appropriate for you.

The Primary Causes of Thyroid Disruption

While there are dozens of factors that may disrupt thyroid function, Littlewood believes estrogen dominance and estrogen excess are among the primary causes.

“I think if we look to the major kind of cohort who tend to suffer the most, it’s women … estrogen will suppress thyroid function and when there’s an estrogen dominance and estrogen excess, it will suppress how much thyroid hormone is being produced,” he says. “This kind of state will need supplementing with thyroid hormone because thyroid hormone will help increase estrogen metabolism.”

That said, note that thyroid hormone is a prescription therapy. Whether it is appropriate, and at what dose, is a decision for a qualified clinician who can diagnose and monitor treatment — not something to start on your own.

Other factors, including diet and environmental pollution, also need to be addressed. “The diet becomes intricately involved with trying to resolve this. You can’t just throw thyroid hormones and expect that you’re going to, A, lose weight and B, resolve all those issues because if you don’t have enough energy in the tank, then you’re not going to be able to function at that point as well,” Littlewood says.

He mentions Brassica vegetables, such as cabbage, Brussels sprouts, broccoli and cauliflower, which contain thiocyanates that may suppress thyroid function in large quantities, as one example. However, he adds that environmental pollutants can also be damaging, particularly if you have a genetic predisposition for thyroid problems or your diet isn’t ideal. These factors can compound one another, in what Littlewood describes as a “perfect storm”:

“If you’ve got poor inheritable traits … your nutrition’s not in good order … you’re under lots of stress and you’re exposing yourself to certain endocrine disruptors … [via] food choices, certain pesticides, very polluted environments in the city, perhaps even wireless exposure … All of these things can create a perfect storm. So, it becomes almost like a clinical ecology exercise to start with.

What can you remove from your environment that might be damaging you? And that could be a thousand different things for a thousand different people. So that’s where it becomes quite useful to do your due diligence about what somebody needs. It’s a needs analysis to get people to where they want to be. There’s no point in just saying, ‘Hey, his thyroid hormone, everything’s going to work out right,’ because it never happens like that.”

Get Your Diet Right First

Many lifestyle factors can contribute to low thyroid function, including stress, inadequate light exposure and exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In terms of diet, high polyunsaturated fat (PUF) intake, including linoleic acid, is one factor that has drawn attention, as research suggests PUFs may interfere with your cells’ ability to use active thyroid hormone.

With so many factors affecting your endocrine health, where should you begin to get it all sorted out? Littlewood recommends targeting your diet first:

“One of the most common themes that I’ve found — and my practice is probably about 70% females overall — it’s getting enough protein in, it’s getting enough calories in, it’s getting enough carbohydrates in and making sure that you can utilize those carbohydrates quite well … what you should be able to do is utilize carbohydrates as a fuel, everybody should be able to do it.”

Low-carb diets may work against healthy thyroid function. For healthy thyroid function, you need to make sure T4 can be efficiently converted into T3.

To support the conversion of T4 to T3, focus on whole, unprocessed or minimally processed foods, with enough protein and easily digested carbohydrates that are less likely to cause intestinal irritation or endotoxin production — whole fruits and white rice are the usual starting points in this regard. Littlewood explains that he often sees issues among his patients who have followed low-carb diets:

“This is something that I’ve seen with lots of females coming in who’ve gone keto, they’ve gone carnivore and they’re experiencing more disturbed menstrual cycles, increased hair loss. You can see that they’re progesterone deficient. You see that estrogen taking a hold, and this is where it becomes problematic and you start to see the sleep, the digestion, the mood, energy, all of these things that tend to go out of whack.

So, I would say that the diet is the base for everybody to get that right. A lot of people are unsure of some of the chemicals that are around, and they tend to become more aware of that as the process goes on.

So, I do think it’s getting the diet right first of all. I think it’s becoming aware of the things that could potentially disrupt thyroid, decrease progesterone, increase estrogen, and then you could start to look at that straight away. But it’s certainly something, I often work for at least a month or two, getting the diet right before you even consider entertaining them to think about thyroid hormone.”

Fixing your gut health is also important. “Digestion goes hand in hand with thyroid. It goes hand in hand with regulating thyroid, absorbing thyroid from the gut as well, and also how to regulate insulin as well. And if you can’t digest your nutrients, you are always going to have a problem with supporting the thyroid,” Littlewood says.

The Estrogen Connection

As I noted in this interview, many people believe that they are low in estrogen due to bloodwork, when they actually have high levels in their organs. This is because serum estrogen levels are not fully representative of estrogen that’s stored in tissues. Estrogen can be low in plasma, but high in tissues.2,3,4 Littlewood agreed:

“Yep. I would concur with that. I mean, where is the highest amount of T3 found? The highest amount of T3 is found intracellularly. It’s not in serum. So if you apply that rationale to estradiol, for example, and maybe the other weaker estrogens like estrone and estriol, they are going to be in the tissues.

Now, bear in mind, if you have any amount of adipose tissue, you are generating estrogen by default, and the amount of aromatase that’s being produced will convert testosterone and other hormones also to estrogen. So looking at the serum test, I think urinary tests can be useful, but again, they have their pitfalls because they’re not representative of systemic tissue status of these hormones.”

Estrogen appears to inhibit the conversion of T4 to T3, and, in my view, excess estrogen is among the more significant contributors to cancer risk — a position that sits outside the conventional consensus. Many clinicians also assume serum levels are equivalent to tissue levels, which may not hold. If that is right, some people may be reassured by a low serum result while tissue exposure remains higher.

One indirect option some clinicians use to gauge estrogen activity in fat and tissues is a prolactin blood test, though prolactin is not a validated measure of tissue estrogen. With this in mind, estrogen promotes the production of prolactin, which is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland. If you decide to have it tested, talk to your health care provider whether it’s appropriate for you:

“Prolactin can be very, very useful. I think keeping prolactin round about 10 milligrams per deciliter is the general idea. I think the average reference range is anywhere from 20 up to a couple of hundred … when you start to see prolactin that high, you start to infer that there’re going to be some problems probably related to high estrogen.

Sometimes you can actually look at someone and tell whether they’re estrogen dominant. You can certainly see it in guys drinking a lot of beer, a lot of phytoestrogens. You will tend to see a combination of weight gain that is promoted by high phytoestrogen exposure.

And in females, you can see that too. There are certainly estrogen-like traits with increased adiposity, certainly hormone dysregulation, which can go from dysregulated cycles to heavy clotting to dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea.

It can go both ways. And there are, again, the mixing or muddying of the water tends to be conflated by the increased estradiol will suppress thyroid hormone, will suppress progesterone … I think keeping prolactin as low as possible is great. And … progesterone will do that. It is predominantly a female hormone, but men do need it as well.”

A Comprehensive Approach Works Best

Littlewood emphasizes that addressing your thyroid problems isn’t as simple as taking thyroid hormones. You need to use a comprehensive approach that addresses what you’re eating — avoiding low-carb and low-calorie diets — your stress levels and your exposure to environmental pollutants, like endocrine-disrupting chemicals.

“You can throw light deficiency with that as well, inadequate vitamin D,” Littlewood says. “All of these things contribute to it.” Often, it’s the most fundamental, simple changes that make the biggest difference in your health. To that end, Littlewood also recommends regular exercise and movement, especially walking, to address endocrine issues and take your health to the next level:

“Very simple strategies can lead to some amazing results, and some of these things just get wrapped up in medical diagnosis, overtreatment, overdiagnosis, and I think this is still a huge problem. And like the ideas that we talked about, what are some of the things that Ray [Peat said that] have stuck with me? It’s understanding that you don’t need to go through this kind of overdiagnosis and overcomplication.

… exercise, I think, is key … I don’t think he [Peat] placed exercise as high up there as he might’ve done. But again, he talked about living a life that had a lot of contentment to it and doing things that were useful and interesting, rather than spending a life of overexercising and breathless exercise, which would lead to this hyperthyroid state anyway.

… the right amount of exercise, it’s not too much, certainly not too little, and that’s, again, something you tend to see — people who’ve been exercising five, six days a week push themselves into a hole. So yeah, adequate strength training, mobility training, moderate amount of cardiovascular exercise through regular walking I think is where most people need to be.”

If you want to learn more about Littlewood, you can find him via his websites, balancedbodymind.com and keithlittlewood.co.uk.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

The human body is designed to thrive with the right conditions — proper nutrition, regular movement, and minimal toxin exposure. These factors create the foundation for optimal health, allowing every system to function as intended.

However, modern lifestyles are working against these basic needs, causing disruptions at the cellular level. The result is widespread chronic illness, dependency on prescription drugs, and a health care system that treats symptoms rather than addressing the underlying problem. Reducing these modern exposures and returning to habits that support cellular health is a practical starting point for many people.

Dietary Catastrophe Has Redefined What We Call Food

Walk into any grocery store, and you’ll see shelves lined with products that claim to be “healthy,” “natural,” or even “nutrient-packed.” Flip them over, and the ingredient lists tell a different story. These foods are filled with artificial flavors, preservatives, and cheap fillers that extend shelf-life and make them highly palatable and easy to overeat.1 What they lack, however, is real nutrition.

• Foods are stripped of essential nutrients during processing — When you consume a diet full of packaged snacks, sugary cereals, ready-made meals, and other processed options, you’re getting plenty of calories, but you’re missing out on important nutrients, including magnesium, B vitamins, vitamin E, omega-3s, and zinc.2 This can leave you undernourished in key micronutrients even when you are eating more than enough food.3

• Excess sugar is another major culprit in modern diets — Decades ago, sugar was a rare treat,4 but now it is hidden in almost everything, from salad dressings to yogurt to so-called “healthy” protein bars. This makes it easy to consume far more sugar than your body handles well — a pattern associated with weight gain, insulin resistance and, over time, Type 2 diabetes.5

• Seed oils are among the most problematic fats in the modern diet — Extracted under extreme heat and pressure from sources like soybean, canola, corn, safflower, and sunflower, highly processed industrial seed oils didn’t even exist in the human diet until the 20th century. Now, they make up a massive portion of daily fat intake.6

Sold as “vegetable oils” and marketed as healthy alternatives to traditional animal fats, seed oils are actually loaded with linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 polyunsaturated fat (PUF) that is highly unstable and prone to oxidation.

• LA promotes inflammation at the cellular level — Unlike saturated fats, which remain chemically stable, LA undergoes lipid peroxidation, generating toxic byproducts called oxidative linoleic acid metabolites (OXLAMs). One example is 4-HNE (4-hydroxynonenal), a compound shown in laboratory research to damage DNA, proteins and mitochondria.7

• Excess LA accumulates in your fat tissue over time — Once inside your body, LA remains for years and can convert into metabolites that promote inflammation. Researchers have proposed that this contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction, which is being investigated as an underlying factor in metabolic conditions including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders.
Importantly, LA is an essential fatty acid and is required for normal mitochondrial function — the goal is not to eliminate it, but to keep your intake within 2 to 5 grams per day.

• Convenience has replaced real food preparation — Meals used to be prepared with fresh, whole ingredients, but now, convenience is king. Instead of real food, processed and fast food make up a majority of most people’s daily diet. This results in a slow but steady decline in health, leaving people unhealthier than ever before.

• Ultraprocessed foods are designed to keep you hooked — Food companies employ scientists to engineer the perfect mix of fat, sugar, and salt to trigger cravings and hijack your brain’s reward system in ways that real food never could.8 The more ultraprocessed food you eat, the harder it is to stop — your taste buds adapt, your metabolism adjusts, and cravings for those same foods intensify.

To learn more about why linoleic acid is so harmful and how it fuels chronic disease, read “Linoleic Acid — The Most Destructive Ingredient in Your Diet.”

A Sedentary Lifestyle Is One of the Biggest Health Threats

The human body was built for movement, yet modern life has turned sedentary lifestyles into the norm. A 2024 survey found that one-third of Americans spend at least eight hours a day sitting, whether at a desk, in the car, or in front of a screen.9 Prolonged inactivity is associated with faster physical decline, and pooled observational data have linked the highest sitting levels to roughly a 30% higher risk of premature death. Notably, this association persists even among people who exercise regularly.10

• Prolonged sitting disrupts blood sugar regulation — Sitting for long periods reduces muscle activity, which makes glucose uptake less efficient — a pattern associated with insulin resistance and, over time, Type 2 diabetes.11 In observational research, adults who sat more than eight hours a day had about a 17% higher relative risk of developing diabetes than those who moved regularly.12

• Inactivity takes a toll on your heart — Inactivity is associated with stiffer blood vessels, slower circulation and greater arterial plaque buildup.13 Observational studies report higher rates of heart disease among adults who sit for most of the day, even when they exercise occasionally.14

• A sedentary lifestyle promotes fat storage — Physical inactivity shifts your metabolism in ways that favor fat storage.15 In observational research, physically inactive adults had about a 52% higher relative risk of obesity than more active individuals.16 This process creates a vicious cycle where inactivity causes weight gain, and excess weight makes movement even harder, leading to even more health complications.

• Your brain suffers from inactivity, too — Exercise stimulates the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein essential for cognitive function and mental clarity. Lower BDNF levels have been associated with declines in memory, focus, and mood.17 Studies have linked sedentary lifestyles to an approximately 40% higher risk of depressive symptoms18 and a 30% higher risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s.19

• Inactivity triggers emotional and mental stagnation — People who don’t move enough often feel foggy, unmotivated, and even anxious, as physical movement is essential for proper brain function and emotional regulation.

• Children are affected just as much, if not more — Where past generations spent their childhood climbing trees, riding bikes, and running around for hours, today’s youth spend an average of 7.5 hours per day in front of screens.20 This shift has paralleled rising childhood obesity rates, reduced muscular fitness and greater long-term chronic disease risk.21

• Early inactivity has long-term consequences — Approximately 19.7% of U.S. youths are classified as obese, affecting 14.7 million children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years.22 The habits formed in childhood don’t just disappear in adulthood — they shape long-term health outcomes in ways that are difficult to undo.

The Toxins Hiding in Your Everyday Environment

Every day, you are exposed to various environmental toxins, some of which didn’t even exist a century ago. Industrial pollutants, plastics, pesticides, and synthetic additives have infiltrated the food you eat, the air you breathe, and the water you drink. Many of these substances interfere with your body’s natural functions, and the longer you wait to address these exposures, the more damage they do.

• Endocrine disruptors interfere with hormone activity — Endocrine disruptors (EDCs) are one of the most insidious culprits in your environment. Your endocrine system regulates everything from metabolism to reproduction, and even small disruptions have considerable consequences.23 EDCs mimic, block, or alter hormone activity. Research has associated EDC exposure with infertility, thyroid disorders, metabolic dysfunction, and hormone-related cancers.24

• Plastics are a major source of EDC exposure — Water bottles, food containers and plastic wraps leach harmful chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates into food and beverages. Many of these compounds act as xenoestrogens, meaning they mimic estrogen and disrupt hormonal balance.

• Plastic exposure affects men and women differently — For men, this means lower testosterone, reduced muscle mass, and increased fat storage.25 For women, exposure has been associated with irregular menstrual cycles, fertility problems and higher rates of estrogen-driven cancers.26 Research has shown that more than 90% of Americans have detectable levels of BPA in their urine,27 an indication of how widespread plastic exposure has become.

• VOCs pollute indoor environments — Some volatile organic compounds (VOCs) also act as EDCs.28 VOCs are a group of chemicals that easily evaporate into the air. They’re emitted from air fresheners, cleaning chemicals and disinfectants, and even furniture.29 Indoor air is often two to five times more polluted than outdoor air,30 meaning that without proper ventilation, you are inhaling a constant stream of airborne toxins inside your own home.

• VOCs trigger serious health effects — VOC exposure has been linked to respiratory problems, fatigue, headaches, and nervous system effects. Some VOCs, like benzene and formaldehyde, are also classified as carcinogens. Long-term exposure has been linked to liver and kidney damage, immune suppression, and hormone disruption.31,32

• Water contamination is a hidden danger — Water contamination is another major issue as it exposes you to a cocktail of harmful chemicals in the very water you drink. Municipal water supplies can contain chlorine, fluoride, heavy metals, and pesticide runoff, and some of these — heavy metals in particular — accumulate in your body over time.33

Chlorine affects your gut bacteria,34 fluoride has been linked to altered thyroid function35 and heavy metals like lead, arsenic, and mercury are established neurotoxins.36 If your tap water is fluoridated, a high-quality filtration system designed to remove fluoride is the practical fix (Be aware that common pitcher filters such as Brita or PUR will not remove it).

• Pharmaceutical residues contaminate drinking water — Antibiotics, birth control hormones, antidepressants, and blood pressure medications persist in drinking water and contribute to endocrine disruption, antibiotic resistance, reproductive issues, and developmental problems.37

Even bottled water isn’t necessarily safer, as many brands test positive for microplastics38 and the industry is regulated less stringently than public tap water — the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lacks authority to require bottlers to use certified testing labs or report their results, both of which the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires of municipal systems.39

Electromagnetic Fields — An Invisible Modern-Day Threat

Another hidden but serious threat to cellular health is electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure. Unlike chemical toxins, which are ingested or inhaled, EMFs are invisible, surrounding you every day through cellphones, Wi-Fi routers, smart meters and other wireless technology. Because they permeate the environment, they are nearly impossible to avoid, making them one of the most overlooked dangers to human health.

• Modern EMFs operate at biologically disruptive frequencies — EMFs cover a broad spectrum, including natural sources like sunlight, which play essential roles in biological function. However, modern high-frequency EMFs, emitted by cellphones, Wi-Fi and 5G networks, operate in the gigahertz range, and researchers have raised concerns that they disrupt cellular processes in ways current safety standards do not fully account for.

• Nonthermal EMFs disrupt cellular signaling — Unlike ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, which directly break DNA, EMFs cause harm through nonthermal effects, meaning they disrupt cells without raising tissue temperature. This makes the effects harder to detect, which is part of why they remain contested.

Research indicates EMFs can alter cellular signaling and activate voltage-gated calcium channels, which may in turn affect mitochondrial function and contribute to oxidative stress and DNA damage.

• EMFs trigger mitochondrial breakdown through calcium flooding — One of the most concerning effects is how EMFs flood cells with excess calcium ions, which triggers a chain reaction that fuels oxidative stress and mitochondrial failure.

This process mirrors the damage caused by seed oils and EDCs. Researchers have proposed that this contributes to chronic inflammation and reduced cellular energy, and have called for further investigation into links with neurodegenerative disease, infertility, and cancer.

• Telecom industries have downplayed these dangers for decades — In 1996, the Telecommunications Act was passed. Section 704 prevents state and local governments from blocking wireless facilities on the basis of RF emissions that comply with FCC limits — a provision critics say has insulated the industry from health-based challenges.40 Industry-funded research have since drawn sustained criticism from independent researchers.41

• The “no heat, no harm” myth is false — The narrative that “if it doesn’t burn you, it’s safe” is deeply misleading. Dr. Martin Pall, Emeritus Professor of Biochemistry and Basic Medical Sciences at Washington State University, has argued that existing safety standards for non-ionizing EMFs substantially understate biological effects.42

• Chronic exposure leads to cumulative damage — While EMFs don’t cause immediate thermal damage, the long-term, cumulative effects of exposure warrant closer attention. The World Health Organization’s cancer agency classifies radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans, based on an observed increase in glioma risk associated with wireless phone use.43 Because any effects develop gradually, they are easy to overlook.

To learn more about how EMFs disrupt your biology and contribute to chronic disease, read “Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Human Health.”

The Impact of Stress and the Mental Health Crisis

Modern life has introduced an overwhelming number of stressors to the human body, such as work deadlines, financial strain, digital overload and the constant pressure to perform. Unlike short bursts of stress, which help you react to danger, chronic stress keeps your body in a permanent state of emergency, disrupting nearly every system.

• Chronic stress keeps cortisol dangerously elevated — The human body isn’t designed to handle this amount of relentless assault, and the damage is showing. When stress becomes chronic, cortisol — the body’s primary stress hormone — remains elevated for long periods. Sustained cortisol elevation is associated with increased inflammation and reduced immune function.44

• Stress significantly raises the risk of major diseases — Observational studies have associated chronic stress with a 40% to 60% higher relative risk of cardiovascular disease45 and with increased risk of Type 2 diabetes.46 In one cohort study, people reporting high stress were about 33% more likely to experience a stroke.47

• High cortisol levels disrupt sleep and brain recovery — When your brain is flooded with stress hormones, your brain also struggles to wind down. This is why insomnia and restless sleep are common in people with high-stress lifestyles.48

• Sleep deprivation worsens metabolic and hormonal function — Sleep deprivation is associated with impaired metabolic function,49 reduced memory performance,50 higher obesity risk, and lower insulin sensitivity.51 It also increases ghrelin (which makes you feel hungry) and reduces leptin (which signals fullness), leading to overeating and food cravings.52

• The mental toll of chronic stress is just as destructive — Anxiety disorders affect more than 40 million adults in the U.S.,53 making them the most common mental health issue today. Depression is a leading cause of disability among working-age Americans,54 and chronic stress is a well-documented contributing factor.

• Stress physically rewires your brain for fear and dysfunction — When your brain is exposed to prolonged stress, it rewires itself for fear, overreaction and negativity. This makes it harder for you to regulate emotions and focus. Prolonged stress has also been associated with reduced hippocampal volume — the brain region central to memory and learning55 — along with brain fog, difficulty concentrating and, in some longitudinal research, higher rates of Alzheimer’s disease.56

• Chronic stress shortens lifespan — Chronic stress has been associated with markers of cellular aging,57 including shorter telomere length — the protective caps on DNA that play a significant role in longevity.58

• The stress cycle becomes self-perpetuating — The more stress you endure, the harder it becomes to escape its grip. Left unaddressed, chronic stress affects far more than mood — it influences your biology in ways associated with poorer long-term health.

A Wakeup Call

Despite medical advancements and a health care system that spends trillions each year, Americans are getting sicker. Poor diet, environmental toxins, sedentary lifestyles, and chronic stress are each associated with metabolic dysfunction and reduced cellular energy production — together creating conditions in which chronic disease becomes more likely.

• Conventional medicine focuses on symptoms, not root causes — Instead of targeting the root causes of this modern health crisis, conventional medicine remains fixated on symptom management. Medications often manage symptoms without addressing what drives them. Both approaches have a place — but without more attention to underlying causes, the burden of chronic disease is likely to keep growing.

• The good news is, chronic ill health is not unavoidable — Many chronic conditions are strongly influenced by modifiable factors, and research suggests meaningful improvement is possible for many people. Your body is not failing — it is responding to an environment that makes optimal cellular function harder to sustain.

• True healing requires a shift in focus — A growing body of research points to cellular and mitochondrial function as an underexplored factor in chronic disease — one that short-term interventions alone are unlikely to address. The future of medicine will likely need to look beyond symptom control to where health begins: at the cellular level.

The encouraging part is how much of this sits within your control. Eating real food, getting sunlight, walking an hour a day, filtering your water, reducing plastic use, and putting your phone down at night are ordinary changes with real physiological effects. None of it requires perfection — small, consistent choices compound, and the body is remarkably responsive when conditions improve.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About the Modern Drivers of Chronic Disease

Q: What are the factors behind today’s chronic disease epidemic?

A: Modern lifestyles disrupt cellular health through poor nutrition, lack of movement, environmental toxins, and chronic stress. These conditions are associated with impaired mitochondrial function, reduced energy production, and increased inflammation — factors researchers link to chronic illness.

Q: Why is the modern food supply damaging to health?

A: Today’s processed foods are stripped of essential nutrients and loaded with sugar, synthetic additives, and seed oils high in linoleic acid. These ingredients are associated with disrupted metabolism, increased inflammation, and higher rates of obesity, insulin resistance, and other metabolic disorders.

Q: What role does chronic stress play in long-term illness?

A: Chronic stress keeps cortisol levels elevated, which triggers inflammation, weakens the immune system, and disrupts sleep and metabolism. Over time, this pattern has been associated with changes in brain structure, accelerated cellular aging and higher risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and neurodegeneration.

Q: How do everyday toxins contribute to disease?

A: Plastics, endocrine disruptors, VOCs, and contaminated water interfere with hormone function, damage mitochondria, and accumulate in tissues. These exposures are constant and, in some cases, cumulative, and researchers are investigating their combined contribution to chronic dysfunction.

Q: Are EMFs actually harmful?

A: Research indicates EMFs from wireless devices, Wi-Fi, and 5G networks can affect calcium signaling, mitochondrial function and oxidative stress. Any effects are not immediate, which is part of why they remain debated — but they warrant attention.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

When a morning bowel movement doesn’t happen on schedule, the usual suspect is yesterday’s dinner. More often, the real culprit is what happened after dinner — specifically, how you slept and when. Your digestive tract doesn’t simply respond to what you eat. It also responds to how well you sleep and, just as importantly, when you sleep.

That connection gets overlooked because conventional advice almost always focuses on fiber, water and exercise. Those recommendations matter, but they leave out a factor that influences your digestion from the moment you close your eyes until the moment your feet hit the floor. Your evening routine, your bedtime consistency and even how much time you allow yourself after waking up all play a role in whether your body cooperates the next morning.

Rather than relying on coffee or hoping for better luck tomorrow, you have far more control over your morning than you might realize. The research below explains exactly how your sleep schedule shapes your digestive rhythm and what you can do each evening to support a better morning.

Your Digestive System Follows a Built-In Daily Schedule

A review published in Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology examined how sleep affects the digestive system in both healthy people and those with disorders of gut-brain interaction.1 The researchers evaluated evidence covering normal digestive function, sleep disorders and conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), while also reviewing available treatments that target sleep.

Their goal was to determine whether poor sleep makes digestive symptoms worse, whether digestive problems disrupt sleep or whether both influence each other. The researchers concluded that sleep deserves much more attention in digestive care, noting, “Sleep, a cornerstone of lifestyle management, appears to be the forgotten factor.”

• Your digestive tract intentionally slows down overnight before becoming active again — Every part of your digestive system follows a predictable daily rhythm. According to the review, saliva production falls by about 50% overnight, stomach emptying slows during the evening, and the waves of muscle contractions that move food through your intestines become much less active while you’re asleep.

Even the muscles of your colon reduce their normal activity during the night. These changes don’t mean digestion has stopped. Your digestive system is following a programmed rest period, slowing down overnight so it can ramp back up when you wake.

• Your gut and brain communicate constantly through hormones, nerves and gut bacteria — The review explained that your digestive tract actually contains up to 400 times more melatonin than your pineal gland in the brain. Inside your intestines, melatonin helps regulate gut movement and supports healthy gut bacteria.

At the same time, sleep deprivation activates your body’s main stress response system, called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, increasing stress hormones that weaken the intestinal barrier and interfere with normal gut-brain communication. The researchers also found that your gut bacteria follow their own daily rhythm, so irregular sleep disrupts the balance of microbes that help digestion stay on track.

• Poor sleep predicted worse digestive symptoms better than digestive symptoms predicted poor sleep — People with IBS experienced sleep disturbances far more often than healthy adults, with a pooled prevalence of 37.6%. Many participants actually logged more hours of sleep than healthy individuals but still woke up feeling unrested; their sleep was fragmented by more frequent awakenings and spent disproportionately in lighter stages.

Those repeated awakenings were associated with greater abdominal pain, more digestive distress and lower quality of life. Researchers also found that insomnia predicted worse abdominal pain, anxiety and fatigue the following day, while digestive symptoms didn’t consistently predict the following night’s sleep quality.

• Disrupted body clocks increased digestive problems in everyday life — The review highlighted several real-world examples showing what happens when your internal clock falls out of sync. Waking up naturally increases colon contractions that move stool toward the rectum, preparing your body for a morning bowel movement. When sleep schedules constantly change, that timing becomes less predictable.

Researchers also reported that IBS occurred 81% more often among shift workers than among people with regular daytime schedules. Shift work often brings irregular eating habits and greater intake of processed foods, creating multiple pressures on normal digestive function at the same time.

• Sleep-focused treatments improved digestive health alongside better sleep — Because sleep influences so many parts of digestion, the researchers also reviewed therapies that target sleep rather than bowel symptoms alone. They found sufficient evidence that melatonin reduced overall IBS symptom severity while improving quality of life.

Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also improved insomnia severity, sleep efficiency and overall sleep quality, with one study showing improvements in both sleep and digestive symptoms among college students with IBS and insomnia.

Based on the evidence reviewed, the researchers concluded that improving sleep deserves a much larger role in first-line digestive care alongside diet, exercise and stress management because healthy digestion depends on healthy sleep from the very beginning.

The research makes a convincing case that sleep shapes digestion at every level — hormones, gut bacteria, colon contractions, even the strength of your intestinal lining. The practical question is what that means for your evening routine and your morning.

Your Evening Routine Determines How Easily You Poop the Next Morning

As noted in a news feature published by EatingWell, a consistent bedtime teaches your digestive system when it’s time to go.2 Gastroenterologist Dr. Catherine Ngo explains that “consistent, high-quality sleep helps the digestive system maintain predictable patterns of motility, which supports regular bowel habits.” Instead of wondering whether your body will cooperate each morning, keeping a regular bedtime teaches your digestive tract when to rest and when to prepare for elimination.

Ngo also explains that going to bed and waking up at roughly the same time each day creates predictability and safety for your nervous system. Because your digestive tract responds to signals from both your brain and your gut, that steady schedule helps your colon anticipate periods of activity and rest, making it easier to move stool forward before you even head to the bathroom.

• Late nights disrupt the hormones that help keep digestion on schedule — Gastroenterologist Dr. Rucha Shah explains that staying awake far later than normal throws off the timing of cortisol, your body’s primary stress hormone.3 As she puts it, “When people are staying up really late, those cortisol levels are spiking at times that they’re not normally used to … and so then it creates this pattern where digestion gets thrown off.”

Shah adds that this problem often appears in people who work overnight shifts because their internal body clock rarely follows a regular daily rhythm. When your sleep schedule constantly changes, your digestive system loses the consistency it depends on.

• Human research linked poor sleep to measurable changes in the gut microbiome — A 2026 systematic review analyzed 41 human studies published between 2016 and 2025 that examined how sleep duration, sleep quality, insomnia and disrupted body clocks affect the gut microbiome — the community of bacteria and other microbes living in your digestive tract.4

Researchers found that poor sleep and circadian disruption were associated with changes in both the types of gut bacteria present and the beneficial substances they produce, including short-chain fatty acids, vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters and bile acids that help regulate digestion, metabolism and immune function.

While the findings varied between studies because of differences in diet, age, health and research methods, the review concluded that improving sleep and circadian rhythms supports a healthier gut microbiome, giving you another reason to treat a consistent bedtime as part of your digestive health routine instead of simply a way to feel more rested.

• Rushing through your morning trains your body to ignore its own signals — The experts point out that many people accidentally work against their body’s natural urge to have a bowel movement simply because they’re trying to get out the door quickly. Ngo explains that “if rushed in the morning, you don’t have the time to relax and let the bowels evacuate.”5

Shah adds that successful bowel movements require the muscles around the rectum to relax. If you repeatedly suppress the urge because you’re short on time, your body gradually becomes less responsive to those natural signals, making regular bowel movements more difficult over time.

• A simple change in body position helps stool pass more easily — One practical recommendation involves placing a small stool beneath your feet while sitting on the toilet. According to Shah, raising your knees above your hips helps open the muscles involved in bowel movements, making it “exponentially easier to poop.”

It’s a straightforward mechanical adjustment that changes the angle of your lower bowel, helping stool move through more comfortably without medication, supplements or expensive equipment.

Make Your Evening Routine Work for Your Gut

If your mornings rarely go as planned, don’t focus only on breakfast or coffee. Start the night before. Your digestive system follows a daily rhythm, and the habits you repeat every evening shape what happens the next morning. Try making a few simple changes and sticking with them long enough for your body to recognize the pattern. Consistency matters far more than perfection.

1. Keep the same bedtime every day — Your digestive tract performs best when your sleep schedule stays predictable. Go to bed and wake up at roughly the same time every day, including weekends. That steady routine helps your body recognize when it’s time to rest and when it’s time to prepare for a morning bowel movement. If you stay up late several nights in a row, don’t expect your digestive system to stay perfectly regular. Your body responds best to repetition.

2. Give yourself enough time after you wake up — If you usually race through your morning, build in an extra 15 to 30 minutes. Your digestive system works better when you aren’t under pressure. Don’t ignore the urge to have a bowel movement because you’re running late. Repeatedly holding it trains your body to become less responsive over time, making constipation more likely.

If you often feel rushed, shifting your bedtime earlier is one of the simplest ways to create more time the next morning.

3. Support digestion after dinner instead of collapsing on the couch — Finish eating at least three hours before bedtime whenever possible so your digestive system has time to process your meal before you fall asleep. A light walk after your evening meal helps keep food moving through your digestive tract.

Even 10 to 20 minutes is enough to encourage normal stomach emptying and healthy intestinal movement. Pair that habit with steady hydration throughout the day instead of drinking large amounts of water right before bed, which interrupts sleep with nighttime bathroom trips.

4. Use better bathroom mechanics — Your body was designed to empty your bowels in more of a squat than a seated position. Place a small footstool under your feet so your knees sit higher than your hips while you’re on the toilet. That simple adjustment straightens the lower part of your bowel and allows the muscles involved in a bowel movement to relax more completely. If you haven’t tried it, you’ll often notice the difference immediately.

5. Build regularity through daily habits instead of quick fixes — Your digestive system responds to patterns, not shortcuts. Protect your sleep as carefully as you protect your diet. If your gut tolerates it well, gradually increase fiber-rich whole foods and stay physically active every day, but recognize that without consistent sleep, those habits lose some of their power.

I also encourage you to keep a simple journal for two weeks that tracks your bedtime, wake time and bowel habits. You’ll often spot patterns that weren’t obvious before, making it much easier to identify the routines that keep your digestive system working on schedule.

FAQs About Sleep and Bowel Movements

Q: Does poor sleep really affect my bowel movements?
A: Yes. Your digestive system follows a daily rhythm that depends on consistent sleep. Irregular bedtimes, poor-quality sleep and disrupted body clocks interfere with the normal patterns that move stool through your colon, making it harder for your body to stay regular.

Q: Why are morning bowel movements more common than bowel movements later in the day?
A: Your colon naturally becomes more active after you wake up, helping move stool toward the rectum. A regular sleep schedule reinforces this built-in timing, while inconsistent bedtimes make the process less predictable and increase the likelihood of constipation or delayed bowel movements.

Q: What nighttime habits help promote a morning bowel movement?
A: Going to bed at the same time each night, finishing your last meal at least three hours before bedtime, taking a 10- to 20-minute walk after dinner and staying well hydrated throughout the day all help support your digestive system’s natural rhythm. These simple habits work together to encourage more regular bowel movements.

Q: Why does rushing in the morning make it harder to poop?
A: Your body needs time to respond to its natural urge to have a bowel movement. If you repeatedly ignore that urge because you’re in a hurry, your body gradually becomes less responsive to those signals. Giving yourself an extra 15 to 30 minutes each morning makes it easier for your bowels to empty completely.

Q: Is there a simple way to make bowel movements easier without medication?
A: Yes. Placing a small footstool under your feet while sitting on the toilet raises your knees above your hips, creating a more natural squatting position. This helps relax the muscles involved in bowel movements and allows stool to pass more comfortably, especially when combined with healthy sleep habits and a consistent daily routine.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Test Your Knowledge with Today’s Quiz!
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What can cause tonsil stones to keep coming back?

Bacteria and debris collecting in tonsil folds
Bacteria, food particles, mucus, and dead cells can collect in the folds of the tonsils, allowing stones to form again. Learn more.
Drinking too much water, causing debris to become stuck
Eating crunchy fruits and vegetables
Breathing only through the nose

Three years ago, a nationwide infant formula shortage shook America, and before long led to fights at grocery stores1 and stories like this flooding the media:

At the time, significant outrage was directed at the FDA since the shortage was due to their inspection triggering a major recall by one of the leading formula manufacturers (along with tight supplies and subsequent panic buying).

Furthermore, many could not grasp why the FDA was willing to enact such a strong enforcement action against potentially contaminated infant formula which was linked to two deaths. Still, they had no issue with the large numbers of people dying from the COVID vaccines nor the immense degree of contamination and deadly hot COVID vaccine lots the public had discovered.

As I watched this unfold, my thoughts were a bit different. Could there possibly be another way to feed your infants? Perhaps one that you could do at home that did not rely upon an unstable supply chain — but surprisingly, I did not see that offered anywhere (even in homesteading groups).

I thus took the events of 2022 as a remarkable testament to just how effectively the formula industry had convinced mothers they needed to do anything besides breastfeed their children, and since then, have tried to help create a window to end this dysfunctional paradigm.

Fortunately, on March 18th, RFK Jr. announced an FDA initiative2 to make America’s infant formula healthy again (e.g., conducting a comprehensive review of its nutritional content, testing formula for heavy metals, and objectively assessing the health issues that arise from formula feeding). This is extremely important and I believe that for “Operation Stork Speed” to succeed,3 it’s critical for us to understand what went awry with infant formula.

Note: In addition to heavy metals4 (and other harmful chemicals), infant formula has also repeatedly been found to be contaminated with aluminum,5 something which is quite problematic due to its adverse effects on the physiologic zeta potential6 (which can cause microclots in the nervous system).

The History of Formula Feeding

Throughout history and cultures, there are references to (likely malnourished) mothers who could not sufficiently nourish their children with their breast milk, who then sought out milk from other mothers or, if that was not available, from animals.

This process led to a variety of attempts (starting in 1865)7 to create a milk substitute that more accurately matched the safety and efficacy of human breast milk, a process which was revolutionized through the discovery of evaporated milk powder and its adaptation into infant formulas in the early 1900s.

As infant formulas improved in the 1920s,8 manufacturers began targeting physicians with their advertising. By 1929, the American Medical Association (AMA) established a committee to evaluate the safety and quality of formula compositions, leading many companies to seek the AMA’s “Seal of Acceptance,” bringing physicians closer to formula manufacturers.

By the 1940s and 1950s, formula use became widely accepted as a safe alternative to breast milk, and with the help of aggressive marketing and the inappropriate medicalization of childbirth, successfully displaced breastfeeding.9

Note: The AMA’s seal of approval was created in 1905,10 and was designed to be a source of revenue to keep the struggling organization afloat (as it was given in return for advertising dollars rather than any assurance of safety11 — for instance the AMA widely promoted the benefits of smoking their sponsor’s cigarette brand).

Sadly, once this funding allowed the AMA to begin establishing a foothold in the medical market, the organization then switched to blacklisting every competing therapy which would not sell out to the AMA12 (which is essentially why there are so many remarkable forgotten medical therapies exist emerged in the early 1900s).

Many recognized this shift was harmful to both mothers and children, so a variety of groups (particularly the La Leche League13) mobilized the public to support mothers breastfeeding. In the 1970s, they finally reached the public (due to both scientific data emerging in support of breastfeeding and a growing societal dissatisfaction with the paternalistic and insensitive attitude medicine had towards women). Since then breastfeeding has gradually made a comeback.

One of the key events that catalyzed this shift away from formula was the Nestlé formula scandal (which began in 197314), which began after the public learned Nestlé was aggressively targeting poor women in undeveloped countries for infant formula sales.

This was accomplished by paying hospitals to give free samples to mothers after delivery and telling mothers (frequently via sales reps impersonating nurses) that they would not be able to produce enough milk for their babies. This, in turn, created anxiety that suppressed maternal milk production and led to the impoverished mothers frequently not only switching to infant formula but also diluting it (as they could not afford standard doses).

Millions of infants died as a result of these practices,15 and Nestlé eventually came under widespread public scrutiny (e.g., boycotts, celebrity protests, government investigations, and some of its predatory marketing practices being banned).

The fact that Nestlé was able to convince millions of mothers to starve their babies to death again illustrates how predatory many of these marketing tactics were16 (particularly since some of those now outlawed practices still continue in the poorer nations).

Formula Marketing

During pediatric “well-child” visits, doctors frequently diagnose children as underweight based on growth charts and then promote (frequently unnecessary) infant formula17 that routinely contains unhealthy ingredients like obesity promoting corn syrup and seed oils.

Note: This is somewhat analogous to how a widely used (but erroneous) calculator routinely tells patients they are at high risk of a heart attack and hence must start a dangerous and unnecessary statin.

Robert S. Mendelsohn,18 in How to Raise a Healthy Child In Spite of Your Doctor,19 critiqued this, noting industry sponsored growth charts often favor formula-fed children, misclassifying breastfed babies as “underweight.”

This is particularly true for CDC’s charts as their weights are derived from too many formula fed babies,20 and hence can diagnose breastfed babies as “underweight.” Hence, formula-feeding is promoted as the “new normal” despite studies showing it leads to rapid weight gain and adult obesity.21,22,23

As such, the formula’s role in the continually increasing childhood obesity rates24 (e.g., 19.7% in 2020)25 must be considered (but unfortunately, we are instead “solving” it by putting children on Ozempic26 — a drug which has a great deal of issues).

This again illustrates the longstanding tendency of the formula industry to engage in a variety of predatory tactics (e.g., making a variety of false claims not supported by the existing evidence to create parental anxiety, funding pediatrician’s “education,” having the doctors and hospitals push unhealthy infant formula, levying sanctions against countries that promote breastfeeding and lobbying against laws allowing maternity leave27).

Sadly, due to that (and spending 3 billion each year on marketing) the formula industry now has a 10.15% annual growth rate and an annual market worth 90.91 billion.28

So while breastfeeding has many proven health benefits, less than 50% of babies worldwide are breastfed according to WHO recommendations — which results in nearly $350 billion dollars of economic losses annually.29

Seed Oils in Formula

Since seed oils are linked to obesity, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction, many parents do not want to give them to their children. In turn, I am frequently contacted by frustrated patients after they discover that every infant formula is full of seed oils. This is because:

• FDA regulations require infant formulas to have at least 2.7% of its calories (300 mg per 100 Kcal) come from linoleic acid (LA, the problematic omega-6 fat in seed oils), which the FDA aggressively enforces. The regulations have no upper limit, resulting in some formulas containing over 15% LA.

• The Infant Formula Act of 1980 is the source of that FDA regulation.30

• Its requirements came from 1960s research that erroneously deemed LA essential for infant development (largely because infants consuming no other fats would have their skin dry out).

• Modern science shows that the required amount of LA is much lower once other essential fats are present,31 that high LA blocks the synthesis and accumulation of fats which are critical for brain and eye development (hence impairing neurological development), and that LA increases the brain’s vulnerability to inflammation.32

Because of this, other governments (e.g., China’s33 and Europe’s34) have revised their infant formula requirements. Remarkably however, despite the Infant Formula Act granting H.H.S. Secretaries the authority to update the nutritional requirements of infant formula since 1980, all they’ve done is slightly raise the required phosphorus and calcium and require the addition of selenium to formula (which ultimately happened 26 years after the scientific community concluded it was essential).

As such, many fats we now know are essential for developing infants are largely absent from formula, and simultaneously, LA remains a primary ingredient (likely on account of industry lobbying as LA is one of the cheapest ingredients available to the food industry).

Raw Milk

Throughout history, infants in many societies whose mothers could not produce sufficient milk have gotten supplemental milk from a variety of animals, and in America, prior to World War II, many textbooks advocated for feeding children raw animal milk.35

At the time pasteurization began to be implemented for milk in the late 1800s,36 it was arguably immensely valuable as while millions of children had been successfully raised on raw animal milks, children were also being sickened by microbial contaminated milk (as things were much less sanitary then than they are now and not every children had access to clean cow’s milk).

As such, before long, humanity’s long history of consuming raw milk was forgotten and raw milk came to be viewed as extremely dangerous (largely due to raw milk significantly increasing the risk of causing a listeria infection — something which can be quite hazardous to mothers, children, and the elderly).

However, the data does not support that belief. For example, a (likely biased) 2003 risk assessment from the FDA found many commonly consumed foods (that no one ever objects to) had a much greater risk of causing a listeria infection than raw milk.37

Similarly, a 2007 FOIA request showed that from 1980 to 2005, there had only been three total cases of listeria and two of brucella (all of which came from raw cheese not raw milk) and that all other microbial infections in raw milk (most of which aren’t that dangerous) were also quite rare (typically under a 100 cases per year).38

Note: While raw milk is relatively safe (provided you get it from a clean and grass fed source), there is a small elevated risk of infection from soft raw cheeses.

In contrast, pasteurizing milk damages essential vitamins and denatures proteins, leading to issues such as:

The loss of beneficial enzymes.
Denatured proteins lose their negative charge, thereby adversely affecting the physiologic zeta potential (which in turn can create congestion throughout the body).
Pasteurized milk can turn proteins into allergens, leading to allergies, rashes, and respiratory problems like asthma — whereas raw milk rarely causes those issues.

Note: While still problematic, evaporated milk causes fewer allergies than liquid pasteurized milk. Additionally, some individuals who have difficulty consuming dairy find switching from A1 to A2 milk (which is much rarer than A1 milk) improves their symptoms, while others better tolerate goat’s milk (but also can cause constipation and lacks B₁₂). However, while each can be helpful, in most cases, individuals best tolerate raw milk.

Conversely, the plant “milks” can be quite problematic for infants as they lack many of the essential nutrients found in animal milks and often contain various unhealthy substances. Soy milk is particularly problematic due to the high amount of phytoestrogens soy puts into the bloodstream,39 soy’s effect on thyroid function,40 soy’s frequent contamination with other chemicals (e.g., herbicides), and soy’s tendency to block the absorption of many critical nutrients.41

In short, if a formula is consumed, it is vital that it safely meets an infant’s nutritional needs. Consequently, many have observed, infants fed on those natural formulas (or breast milk) thrive and lack many of the illnesses seen in most infants.

The Benefits of Breast Milk

One of the most reliable approaches for creating a successful business is to replace something (free) that people rely upon with a patentable product. Unfortunately, when this happens, the synthetic substitute is often a meager shadow of what it replaces.

Breast milk, for example, is a complex, nutrient-rich substance that is crucial to infant health and development.42 It contains growth factors, antibodies, cytokines, and enzymes that support the immune system, digestive health, and overall growth.43,44,45,46

MicroRNA47 in breast milk helps regulate gene expression, prevents allergies, and aids in immune development. Unique to breast milk, these components provide immune protection and foster a baby’s development in ways formula cannot fully replicate.48

Breast milk also contains essential fatty acids,49 cholesterol,50 human milk oligosaccharides,51 (and many other unique lipids)52 that are critical for brain development,53 eye development54 and cognitive function (e.g., academic success55).

These nutrients are absent or less abundant in formula, making breast milk a superior choice for infants. Additionally, it offers bioavailable nutrients,56 reducing nutrient competition (e.g., for zinc absorption).57 The benefits of breastfeeding are numerous and include:

• Lower rates of infections (e.g., pneumonia,58 ear infections59) and lower hospitalization rates (e.g., for infections).60

• Lower rates of gastrointestinal issues (e.g., stomach problems,61 constipation,62 gas,63 diarrhea64) and allergies65 (e.g., being half as likely to develop asthma66).

• Being half as likely to die67 from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome68 (a condition decades of evidence shows is linked to vaccination).

• Being less likely to develop cancers69 (particularly leukemia70).

• Improved brain development (particularly white matter growth71).

• Improved cognition (e.g., verbal and spatial skills72 or mathematical ability and working memory73). Likewise, breastfeeding for 12 months was associated with a three-point increase in IQ74 (along with a 0.8 point increase for each additional month75), and higher educational and financial success in life.76

• Being significantly less likely to develop autism or ADHD.77

Breastfeeding also offers significant benefits to the mother, both immediately after pregnancy and later in life. In the short term, it promotes better infant bonding,78 enhances maternal mood,79 aids in post-pregnancy weight loss,80 and reduces the likelihood of developing postpartum depression.81

Additionally, breastfeeding over 12 months of breastfeeding reduces the risk of breast cancer by 4.3%,82 ovarian cancer by 34%83 (and by up to 91% with extended breastfeeding84), and also decreases the risks of endometrial cancer,85 heart attacks,86 and high blood pressure.87

Breastfeeding also promotes stronger bonding, aids in postpartum weight loss, and improves maternal mood. In short, the complexity and richness of breast milk and the mother-child bond it fosters make it an unparalleled source of nutrition, providing essential support for both infant and mother.

As such, it is always imperative that mothers are given the proper support to nourish their children (e.g., lactation consultants can be immensely helpful).

Similarly, one of the most important, but frequently missed points is that the mother needs to be supported as much as possible during the post-delivery process (e.g., with maternity leave and a supportive family), since stress (particularly chronic stress) frequently significantly decreases milk production. In contrast, if her well-being is prioritized, the other necessary areas (e.g., the marriage and the infant’s health) tend to work themselves out.

Conclusion

In my eyes, there are three reasons why the issues I’ve outlined here are so important:

• First, it is a fundamental aspect of human life which (like many other things) industry has usurped from us and replaced with an inferior product that takes away our independence and health.

• Second, our early nutrition during childhood sets the stage for the rest of our lives. As such, we must reclaim a healthy way to raise our children, particularly since many of the principles for a healthy infant diet also hold true for the rest of one’s life.

• Third, infants raised on nutritious breast milk or formula tend to be much healthier, and many people I’ve spoken to over the years notice those differences.

RFK Jr., through his newly enacted “Operation Stork Speed,”88 is taking a stand to reform the formula industry, update the science, and protect our families. For this to succeed, we too must do all we can to make the food we feed our children healthy again, and I am deeply grateful that an opportunity like this is at last before us.

Author’s Note: This is an abridged version of a longer article that goes into greater detail on many of the points discussed here (e.g., the benefit of raw milk and strategies for obtaining the healthiest infant formulas) along with methods for addressing the common challenges encountered with breastfeeding (including colic).

That article can be read here. Additionally, a companion article on the dangers of hospital births and addressing the complications of C-sections and key prenatal strategies for having the healthiest baby possible which can be read here.

A Note from Dr. Mercola About the Author

A Midwestern Doctor (AMD) is a board-certified physician from the Midwest and a longtime reader of Mercola.com. I appreciate AMD’s exceptional insight on a wide range of topics and am grateful to share it. I also respect AMD’s desire to remain anonymous since AMD is still on the front lines treating patients. To find more of AMD’s work, be sure to check out The Forgotten Side of Medicine on Substack.

Modern agriculture is straining under its own weight — and the soil is paying the price. Across the U.S., topsoil is washing away, microbial life is disappearing, and farmers are going broke trying to prop up a system that wasn’t built to last. What used to be self-sustaining, living ecosystems are now bare, lifeless fields that repel rain instead of absorbing it.

When soil biology declines, more water runs off instead of soaking in — a sequence that’s linked to increased flooding and crop failure.

The root problem is that soil no longer captures sunlight or holds water the way nature intended. Former U.S. Department of Agriculture soil scientist Ray Archuleta has spent decades working with farmers across six continents, and he says the pattern is always the same. Overgrazing, chemical fertilizers, and relentless tillage strip the land of its living cover, leaving it naked, hungry, thirsty, and “running a fever.”1

Archuleta frames this as a measurable breakdown of four core ecosystem processes: sunlight capture, water cycling, nutrient flow, and biodiversity. On his reading, what’s at stake isn’t only soil quality — it’s the foundation of a functioning food system. What many people don’t realize is that these degraded lands aren’t beyond repair.

A biology-based approach is already being applied in the field, and it starts with livestock. Cows, when moved in the right way, can help reactivate dormant ecosystems by fertilizing, stirring, and reseeding the land — much like wild bison once did. Archuleta reports that rotational grazing paired with plant diversity rebuilds topsoil and, on the landscapes he has worked on, has coincided with improved local rainfall and returning vegetation.

That’s why Archuleta’s work is so compelling: it suggests that healing land isn’t about adding more chemicals or inventing new technology. It’s about stepping back and learning how to mimic the architecture of nature itself. Let’s dig into what happens when you do.

Healing the Land Starts with Changing How You See It

In a lecture at the 2024 R-SOIL Conference, soil scientist Archuleta broke down the destructive myths behind conventional farming and laid out a new model based on nature’s original blueprint.2 His focus? Teaching producers to stop treating soil like dirt and start seeing it as a living, breathing ecosystem.

The presentation, published on Matt Powers’ YouTube channel, Regenerative Soil & Permaculture, walks viewers through a decades-long journey of failure, insight, and practical strategies for land restoration that rely on biology rather than synthetic inputs.

• Farmers around the world are dealing with the same problems — and the same wrong mindset — After traveling across six continents, Archuleta observed that most producers, regardless of geography, suffer from the same core issue: a mindset shaped by reductionist science and industrial agriculture.

This narrow way of thinking sees problems and solutions in fragments rather than interconnected systems. Whether in Idaho or India, he found that focusing only on fertilizers, equipment, or outputs misses the larger design — nature’s design — and that design always starts with life in the soil.

• Real recovery begins when you mimic nature instead of fighting it — Rather than relying on synthetic inputs or new technologies, Archuleta stresses the importance of mimicking nature’s architecture: diverse plant cover, tightly managed grazing, minimal soil disturbance, and continuous sunlight capture. This method is visible in ranches he’s worked with in New Mexico, where desert land has been transformed into thriving green pastures using nothing more than animals, fencing, and timing.

• Mindset is the first thing that needs to change — Archuleta says the greatest barrier to regeneration isn’t technical — it’s mental. Farmers conditioned by university training or generational habits resist holistic thinking. Many farmers have been conditioned to beat down anything that challenges the norm, including biological methods that have outperformed conventional ones on the operations Archuleta has worked with.

• The industrial model is bankrupting rural communities — Archuleta presents data showing that most of the wealth generated from agriculture doesn’t stay with the farmer. Charts of U.S. and Canadian farm income show a dramatic decline over time, with most profits now going to agribusiness. The current system leaves many farmers unable to pass their land to their children — not because they lack knowledge, but because they’re trapped in a broken economic and ecological loop.

• Conventional soil looks dead for a reason — Archuleta used simple but powerful demonstrations to drive home his message. In one rainfall simulator test, bare tilled soil shed nearly all the water as runoff, carrying precious topsoil with it. But next to it, a biologically active, covered soil sample absorbed every drop, a visual demonstration of how aggregation and living soil biology affect infiltration.

Another striking test compared soil from a conventional field with soil from a farm using cover crops and no tillage. When dropped in water, the tilled sample disintegrated instantly, while the regenerative soil stayed intact. Why? Because living soils produce “biotic glues” — compounds created by microbes and fungi that bind soil particles into aggregates. These sponge-like structures are essential for absorbing water and holding nutrients.

Healthy Soil Is the Foundation of a Functional Ecosystem

Archuleta’s argument is that the real disruptor isn’t carbon dioxide — it’s bare soil. He challenges the idea that CO2 emissions from human activity are the main issue. Citing NASA satellite imagery, he argues that springtime tillage across croplands contributes to seasonal spikes in atmospheric CO2 across North America — an interpretation that differs from the conventional explanation, which attributes the seasonal cycle mainly to plant dormancy and decomposition.

Unlike industrial sources, planted fields draw that carbon back down — if they’re covered with living crops. When corn and soybeans grow in early summer, they absorb large amounts of carbon through photosynthesis. The real crisis is that bare soil no longer functions as a biological pump. Without plants, it loses its ability to absorb water, store carbon, and regulate surface temperatures.

Archuleta argues that water vapor, more than CO2, drives rainfall and temperature swings and that soil plays a key role in managing it — He explains that water vapor is far more abundant in the atmosphere than CO2 — depending on temperature and humidity, roughly 10 to 100 times as much near the surface.

When soil is hard, bare, or packed too tightly, it can’t soak up water the way it should. That throws off the local water cycle — the natural loop where plants release moisture into the air, which then falls back down as rain.

Archuleta says roughly 40% of the rain that falls over land comes from moisture released by plants and soils rather than directly from the ocean — a figure broadly in line with published estimates of terrestrial moisture recycling.3 When land is bare, it doesn’t hold water or cool the air; it reflects heat instead. That extra heat builds up and in his account, feeds more erratic local weather — longer dry spells, hotter days, and sudden heavy downpours.

Soil isn’t just ground; it’s architecture — One of Archuleta’s core teachings is that soil has a complex design, with multiple functional layers known as spheres: the surface skin (dermis), the rhizosphere (around roots), the porosphere (pore spaces), and more.

These layers coordinate the exchange of gases, water, nutrients, and microbial life. Disturb them with chemicals or tillage, Archuleta says, and the system’s function degrades. Nurture them with plant cover and rest, and the entire soil body becomes a functioning, self-regulating organism again.

Life pulls minerals from rocks, not chemicals — In degraded soils, biology has been replaced with inputs. In nature, it’s the living things in the soil — especially fungi and plant roots — that pull minerals out of rocks. They do this by releasing natural acids and enzymes and by breathing, which helps break the minerals down into a form plants can use.

Archuleta drives this home with images of trees growing out of bare rock faces, illustrating his point that it’s not the nutrients in a bag that matter — it’s the life in the soil that makes minerals bioavailable. Without biology, the soil is just dirt.

• Land can be restored even in extreme conditions — On a ranch in the Chihuahuan Desert, where annual rainfall averages just 10 inches and summer temperatures soar past 105 degrees Fahrenheit, Archuleta documented a full landscape transformation using nothing but rotational grazing and ecosystem mimicry.

Two cowboys moved the herd over 800 times per year, mimicking bison migration patterns. Archuleta reports that grasslands returned, soils darkened, measured rainfall rose over the period he documented, and areas previously thought unchangeable began supporting vegetation again. Note that these are field observations from a single operation rather than controlled research, and the specific contribution of grazing management to the rainfall change has not been isolated.

• The lesson is simple: if you want to heal your land, let nature lead — Archuleta urges farmers to stop trying to dominate nature and start asking, “What would nature do here?” He recommends following resources like the Biomimicry Institute and using simple tools — a shovel, a rainfall test, a visual assessment — to measure success. “Soil without plant and without microbial life is just geology,” he says. “It’s life that brings it out.”

How to Support Regenerative Agriculture and Healthier Soil

You don’t have to be a farmer to help heal the land. Most food choices push in one direction or the other — toward systems that rebuild soil, or systems that deplete it. Right now, conventional agriculture is draining the life out of our soil, and the consequences show up in your food, your community, and your environment.

But regenerative farmers are showing that it’s possible to grow nutrient-dense food while restoring biodiversity, improving water infiltration, and rebuilding soil organic matter. If you want cleaner air, cleaner water, and healthier food, it starts by shifting your support away from industrial systems and toward the farmers who are doing it right. Here’s how to be part of the solution.

1. Buy directly from regenerative farmers whenever you can — Seek out farmers who use cover crops, rotational grazing, composting, and no-till methods. Ask about their practices — not just whether they’re “organic.” Use directories like the Regenerative Farmers of America,4 attend local farmers markets, or join a regenerative community-supported agriculture (CSA) program. When you support these growers, you help fund living systems instead of synthetic ones.

2. Choose meat and raw dairy from animals raised on pasture — Livestock are not the enemy when they’re managed properly. Rotationally grazed cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry can fertilize the land and help restore plant diversity. Look for labels like “100% grass fed,” “pasture-raised,” or better yet, talk directly with the farmer. Dollars spent on meat raised this way go to a system built to rebuild land rather than deplete it.

3. Stop supporting brands that rely on industrial agriculture — Many processed foods, plant-based meat substitutes, and industrial dairy products are made from crops grown on degraded land with heavy chemical inputs — a supply chain associated with runoff, erosion, and soil loss. When possible, avoid ultraprocessed foods and buy from smaller brands that disclose sourcing practices. If a brand can’t tell you how its ingredients are grown, it’s probably not worth supporting.

4. Raise awareness in your community and online — Most people have never seen a soil profile, a rainfall simulator, or the difference between living and dead land. Share content from educators like Ray Archuleta and before-and-after case studies that show real land restoration. Invite your friends to farm tours, local talks, or online webinars. The more people see what healthy soil looks like, the faster this movement grows.

5. Vote with your fork and your voice — Every purchase you make is a signal. Every conversation you start, every farmer you support, every city council comment you submit — those things matter. Advocate for policies that encourage soil regeneration, not chemical subsidies. Support local food programs in schools. Ask your grocery store to carry pasture-raised options.

You have more power than you think when you act consistently and with intention. Healing the land doesn’t just belong to farmers — it belongs to anyone who eats. Your daily choices shape the system. Choose to support the ones working with nature, not against it.

FAQs About Regenerative Agriculture

Q: What is regenerative agriculture and how does it work?

A: Regenerative agriculture is a system of farming that mimics nature’s patterns to restore soil health, increase biodiversity, and improve water retention. It uses practices like rotational grazing, cover cropping, and minimal soil disturbance to build living soil biology, which supports healthier plants, builds soil organic matter, and reduces the need for synthetic inputs.

Q: Why is conventional farming damaging the land?

A: Conventional agriculture relies on heavy tillage, chemical fertilizers, and monocultures. These practices break down soil structure, reduce microbial life, and leave the ground bare, which contributes to water runoff, erosion, and loss of fertility. As Archuleta explained, this has turned once-thriving land into lifeless dirt that repels rain and contributes to environmental problems.

Q: How do cows help regenerate soil instead of harming it?

A: When managed properly through rotational grazing, cows fertilize the land with manure, spread seeds, and stimulate plant growth, just like wild herds once did. Moving livestock frequently allows grasslands to rest and regrow, rebuilding soil structure and increasing water infiltration. This turns animals into tools for healing degraded ecosystems.

Q: What can I do if I’m not a farmer?

A: You can support regenerative agriculture by buying directly from farmers who use regenerative practices, choosing pasture-raised meat and dairy, avoiding processed foods grown with industrial methods, and spreading awareness. Every food choice you make helps support or dismantle the current system.

Q: How does healthy soil impact me personally?

A: Living soil tends to produce more nutrient-dense food, holds water better during droughts, and supports cleaner air and water. It also stores more carbon as organic matter — which is part of what gives it that water-holding capacity in the first place. Supporting regenerative systems means investing in your own health, your community’s resilience, and the future of the planet.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.

Tonsil stones, also called tonsilloliths, are small, hardened deposits that form inside the natural folds of your tonsils.1 Most people who develop them share the same frustrating experience; they remove the stone, feel relieved and then discover another one weeks or months later. In the meantime, the stones often produce persistent bad breath that no amount of brushing seems to fix, adding a social burden on top of the physical discomfort.

The cycle continues because removal alone does nothing to change the environment that produced the stone in the first place. That pattern points to a deeper issue worth understanding. Your tonsils aren’t passive tissue — they actively filter bacteria and debris entering through your mouth and nose. But when the conditions inside your mouth shift in the wrong direction, that filtering system becomes overwhelmed.

Instead of clearing material away, your tonsils begin trapping it, and that trapped material is exactly what hardens into a stone.2 If you have dealt with recurring tonsil stones, the path forward isn’t a better removal technique. It starts with identifying the everyday habits and oral conditions that keep inviting them back, then making targeted changes that interrupt the cycle before the next stone has a chance to form.

The Conditions That Allow Tonsil Stones to Return

As noted in an educational article from Pure Holistic Dental, it’s not only important to remove visible tonsil stones but to understand why they develop in the first place.3 Tonsil stones are a sign that bacteria, food particles, mucus and dead cells continue to collect inside the tonsils instead of clearing away normally. Rather than treating them as an isolated problem, identify the habits and conditions that allow the buildup to continue so you reduce the chance that new stones develop.

Your tonsils serve as part of your immune system by filtering bacteria and other unwanted material entering through your mouth and nose. According to the authors, “The tonsils are the first line of defense for the immune system.”4 As this filtering system becomes overloaded, debris accumulates inside the tonsil crypts, the natural pockets and folds within the tonsils, where it gradually hardens into stones.

• Several everyday habits increase your risk of recurring tonsil stones — This includes poor oral hygiene, mouth breathing, chronic tonsillitis, enlarged tonsils, deep tonsil crypts, hormonal changes and an imbalance in the oral microbiome, the community of bacteria that naturally lives inside your mouth. Some of these factors are outside your control. For example, genetics determine the size of your tonsils and how deep the natural folds become.

Others are habits that you have the ability to improve. Every time food debris remains in your mouth, saliva decreases because of mouth breathing, or bacteria accumulate around your teeth and tongue, more material becomes available to collect inside the tonsils.

• Bacterial biofilms help explain why debris stays trapped instead of washing away — Biofilm is a thin, sticky layer created by bacteria that allows them to cling tightly to surfaces instead of being easily rinsed away. Dental plaque is one familiar example of a biofilm.

Bacteria thrive inside the tonsil crypts. As these bacterial communities grow, they trap food particles, mucus and dead cells together, creating what the authors compare to “large, clogged pores.”

That sticky environment makes it much easier for material to remain lodged long enough to harden into a tonsil stone. Simply removing an existing stone does not remove the sticky bacterial community that helped create it. Improving daily oral hygiene helps reduce that bacterial buildup before another stone has a chance to form.

• Dry mouth and sinus problems allow bacteria to multiply more easily — Saliva does much more than keep your mouth comfortable. Saliva constantly rinses away bacteria and food debris while helping maintain a healthier balance of microorganisms inside your mouth.

Mouth breathing reduces that natural cleansing process because the tissues dry out more quickly. Certain medications also contribute by causing dry mouth, meaning your mouth doesn’t produce enough saliva. In addition, ongoing sinus drainage supplies extra mucus and bacteria that collect around the tonsils, adding even more material that becomes trapped inside the crypts.

If you often wake with a dry mouth, breathe through your mouth while sleeping or deal with frequent sinus congestion, those issues deserve attention because they create conditions that favor repeated stone formation rather than simply causing temporary discomfort. Once you understand the conditions driving the cycle, the next step is a daily routine that targets each one directly.

Simple Home Remedies Help Remove Small Tonsil Stones Safely

According to a Healthgrades article, many tonsil stones respond to simple self-care techniques that loosen trapped material without damaging the surrounding tissue.5 Small stones often respond well to conservative approaches performed carefully at home, while larger stones or persistent symptoms deserve medical attention.

This gives you a clear action plan. Instead of reaching for sharp tools or trying aggressive techniques, you can begin with the least invasive methods and move to professional care only if those steps fail.

• Salt water remains one of the simplest and most commonly recommended first steps — Try dissolving 1 teaspoon of table salt in 8 ounces of warm water and gargling for several seconds before spitting the solution out. Repeating this several times a day helps loosen small stones and also supports prevention by flushing debris from around the tonsils.

The benefit is mechanical as much as medicinal. Gargling creates movement that helps free trapped material while the warm salt water washes away bacteria and mucus from areas that are difficult to reach with a toothbrush. If you’re unsure where to start, make this your first challenge. Spend a few minutes each day gargling consistently before trying more direct removal methods.

• Gentle techniques reduce the risk of injuring delicate tissue — If gargling doesn’t remove the stone, try using the soft end of a cotton swab to carefully nudge stones that are easy to see and reach. Stand in front of a mirror in a well-lit room where you won’t be bumped unexpectedly. That reduces the chance of accidentally pushing too hard or scratching the tonsil tissue.

The goal is patience rather than force. If a stone doesn’t move with gentle pressure, stop instead of repeatedly poking at it. Protecting the surrounding tissue is more important than removing the stone immediately.

• Natural body responses often loosen stones without direct contact — Coughing sometimes dislodges tonsil stones on its own. Many people discover a stone after a hard coughing spell without realizing it had been trapped inside the tonsil beforehand.

Another option is a water irrigator. A gentle stream of water directed toward the tonsils helps wash away trapped debris while also encouraging coughing that finishes the job. Healthgrades stresses that an irrigator supplements brushing and flossing rather than replacing either habit. Think of these methods as working with your body’s normal cleaning systems instead of against them. Gentle rinsing and coughing place much less stress on your throat than aggressive scraping.

• A few simple foods support your mouth’s natural defenses — One recommendation that stands out in the article involves eating crunchy carrots or apples. Apples contain natural acids that may help fight bacteria, while carrots stimulate saliva production. Saliva constantly rinses your mouth, carrying away loose food particles and bacteria before they settle into hard-to-clean areas.

While these foods aren’t proven medical treatments, increasing saliva production supports a cleaner oral environment throughout the day. Consider adding one crunchy fruit or vegetable after meals as part of your daily routine. It’s a simple habit that works alongside brushing, flossing and other preventive measures instead of replacing them.

• Knowing when to stop home treatment protects your health — Home remedies are typically appropriate only for small stones that aren’t causing severe symptoms. If the stones continue returning, become difficult to remove, interfere with swallowing, or create persistent throat irritation, contact your primary care physician, who may refer you to an ear, nose and throat specialist.

One easy way to judge your progress is to ask yourself two questions each week: “Are the stones becoming less frequent?” and “Are my symptoms improving?” If the answer remains no despite careful home care, professional evaluation becomes the next logical step.

How to Keep Your Tonsils Clean Every Day

The remedies above address stones that have already formed. The next step is building daily habits that change the conditions inside your mouth so fewer stones develop in the first place. Earlier sections explained why bacteria, dry mouth and chronic drainage create the right environment for tonsil stones. The practical strategies below target each of those conditions directly, turning what you now understand about the problem into a routine you can follow every day.

1. Build a daily routine that removes bacteria before they collect — Brush your teeth twice a day, floss every day, and clean your tongue. If you skip even one of these habits regularly, bacteria have more places to grow. Think of these habits as a daily sequence rather than a checklist of equal parts. Brushing twice a day and flossing form the foundation. Cleaning your tongue targets the bacterial reservoir closest to your tonsils.

Rinsing your mouth after meals catches loose debris before it has a chance to migrate. When you run through that sequence consistently, each step reinforces the others, and the environment inside your mouth becomes far less hospitable to the buildup that leads to stones.

2. Keep your mouth moist and support a healthier oral microbiome — If you wake with a dry mouth or notice that you breathe through your mouth while sleeping, make nasal breathing one of your goals. Saliva constantly rinses away bacteria and loose particles, so keeping your mouth moist helps reduce buildup. Avoid alcohol-based or harsh antibacterial mouthwashes that disrupt the beneficial microbes living in your mouth.

Instead, try oil pulling with coconut oil. Use about 1 tablespoon for adults or 1 teaspoon for children. Gently swish the oil around your mouth and between your teeth for up to 20 minutes, then spit it into the trash and rinse with warm water. If you’re new to oil pulling, begin with one or two minutes and gradually increase the time.

3. Choose foods and rinses that help keep your mouth cleaner — Your diet influences the environment inside your mouth. Reduce heavily processed foods and foods loaded with refined sugar that encourage bacterial growth. Add crunchy foods such as apples or carrots after meals to stimulate saliva production, and drink enough water throughout the day so your mouth stays naturally clean.

If your throat feels irritated or you notice a small stone beginning to form, gargle with warm salt water or a mixture of about one-third cup of apple cider vinegar diluted in warm water to help loosen trapped debris.

4. Use gentle home removal methods instead of aggressive tools — If a tonsil stone is easy to see, begin with gargling. If it remains, try coughing deeply before attempting anything else. Sometimes that simple action is enough to dislodge the stone naturally. If necessary, gently ease it forward with a cotton swab, taking care not to push it deeper into the tonsil or back toward your throat.

If you’re helping a child, use extra caution because a loose stone could become a choking hazard. Never use sharp objects such as toothpicks or other pointed instruments because they can puncture the delicate tissue in your throat and cause bleeding. Remember that many tonsil stones loosen and fall out on their own without any intervention.

5. Think beyond the stone and improve your long-term oral health — Every stone you remove is a signal — your mouth is telling you the conditions that created it are still in place. Keep regular dental cleanings with a biological dentist on your schedule, especially if you have a history of recurring tonsil stones or chronic bad breath.

If you’re able to work with a biological dentist, ask about ways to support your oral microbiome and identify habits that contribute to recurring buildup. The more consistently you improve the environment inside your mouth, the less opportunity bacteria and debris have to collect inside your tonsils.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

FAQs About Tonsil Stones

Q: What causes tonsil stones to keep coming back even after you remove them?
A: Tonsil stones return because removing the stone doesn’t remove the conditions that created it. Bacteria, food particles, mucus and dead cells continue to collect inside the tiny folds of your tonsils if your oral hygiene, saliva flow or oral microbiome remain unchanged. Addressing those underlying issues helps break the cycle instead of repeatedly treating the symptoms.

Q: What are the safest ways to remove a tonsil stone at home?
A: Start with the gentlest methods first. Gargling with warm salt water, coughing deeply or using a gentle stream from a water irrigator often loosens small stones without injuring your throat. If the stone is easy to see, a soft cotton swab works carefully in some cases. Avoid sharp objects such as toothpicks because they can puncture the delicate tissue in your tonsils.

Q: Why does mouth breathing increase the risk of tonsil stones?
A: Mouth breathing dries out your mouth, reducing the amount of saliva available to rinse away bacteria and food debris. As your mouth becomes drier, more material stays trapped inside your tonsils, making it easier for stones to develop. Improving nasal breathing helps restore your mouth’s natural cleaning system.

Q: Does your diet affect your chances of developing tonsil stones?
A: Yes. Diet influences the environment inside your mouth. Foods high in refined sugar encourage bacterial growth, while staying well hydrated and eating crunchy foods such as apples and carrots stimulates saliva production, which helps wash away bacteria and loose debris before they become trapped.

Q: When is it time to stop treating tonsil stones at home?
A: Home care works best for small stones that are easy to reach and not causing severe symptoms. If the stones keep returning, become difficult to remove, cause significant pain, interfere with swallowing or breathing, or continue despite good oral hygiene, it’s time to seek a professional evaluation.

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Which combination was linked to the greatest risk of developing Type 2 diabetes?

Low body fat and low muscle mass
Excess body fat and poor muscle health
Having both excess body fat and low muscle mass and strength was linked to more than 3.5 times the risk of Type 2 diabetes. Learn more.
High body fat and strong muscles
Low body fat and strong muscles

Type 2 diabetes involves far more than high blood sugar. It’s characterized by high blood sugar because your body’s cells stop responding normally to insulin, making it harder to move glucose from your bloodstream into your tissues for energy. Early signs often include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurry vision, slow-healing cuts and frequent infections. Left unchecked, it raises your risk of heart disease, kidney failure, nerve damage and vision loss.

Most conversations about diabetes risk begin and end with body weight, but that leaves out an important part of the picture. Your muscles are active metabolic tissue, and when they weaken or shrink while body fat increases, the metabolic consequences go well beyond what a bathroom scale can capture. Doctors call this combination of excess body fat and declining muscle mass and strength sarcopenic obesity, and it carries a metabolic risk far greater than either problem on its own.

Research confirms that this combination deserves far more attention than it currently receives, revealing that muscle health reshapes long-term diabetes risk in ways that weight alone can’t explain. The findings also highlight groups you might not expect to be most affected, reinforcing that muscle preservation is an investment worth making well before it feels urgent. So, what exactly does the evidence show, and why do your muscles hold so much influence over blood sugar control?

Muscle Strength Predicts Diabetes Risk Better Than Weight Alone

For a study published in Diabetes Care, researchers followed 479,607 adults from the UK Biobank who did not have Type 2 diabetes when the study began to determine whether having both excess body fat and poor muscle health created a greater diabetes risk than either condition alone.1

The researchers evaluated body composition, comparing body fat with measures of muscle strength and muscle mass to identify who developed Type 2 diabetes over time. The study also included a landmark analysis involving 53,107 participants to examine what happened when people’s body composition changed over time.

This allowed the researchers to determine whether improving or worsening muscle health altered future diabetes risk instead of simply capturing a single snapshot at the beginning of the study. Because of the study’s exceptionally large size and median follow-up of 14.2 years, the findings provide one of the strongest looks yet at how muscle health influences your long-term metabolic health rather than just your current condition.

• Losing muscle while gaining body fat created the greatest diabetes risk — During the follow-up period, 32,948 participants developed Type 2 diabetes. Researchers found that the combination of excess body fat and poor muscle health carried a substantially greater risk than either problem alone.

When researchers compared different body composition groups, they found that people with both excess body fat and low muscle mass and strength were more than 3.5 times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes than those with healthy body composition. By comparison, obesity alone and low muscle mass alone each carried lower risks.

• Future risk changed when body composition changed — Researchers also looked at what happened when people’s body composition changed over time. They found that participants who developed sarcopenic obesity faced a sharply higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes than those who maintained healthy body composition.

People who remained in this state over time faced an even greater risk, showing that the longer someone had both excess body fat and poor muscle health, the more their diabetes risk increased.

• Some groups faced even greater risk than others — Researchers found that women and adults younger than 60 experienced a larger increase in Type 2 diabetes risk from sarcopenic obesity than men and adults 60 and older.2 That finding challenges the common belief that muscle loss only becomes important late in life. The results suggest muscle preservation deserves attention decades before most people begin thinking about age-related muscle decline.

• Researchers showed muscle health adds information that body weight misses — The researchers concluded that evaluating both body fat and muscle health provides a more complete picture of who faces the greatest future risk for Type 2 diabetes. In practical terms, two people with similar body weights don’t necessarily have the same metabolic health. One person might carry more healthy muscle, while the other has less muscle and more body fat.

Although the scale shows similar numbers, their future diabetes risk could look very different. The researchers concluded that these findings support an “integrated assessment of muscle health and adiposity” when identifying people at higher risk for Type 2 diabetes. Put simply, muscle deserves a place beside body fat as a core measure of metabolic health, not an afterthought.

Protect Your Muscle to Protect Your Metabolism

Protecting your muscles is one of the most effective ways to lower your long-term risk of Type 2 diabetes. The goal isn’t simply to lose weight — it’s to build and preserve the muscle that helps your body regulate blood sugar every day. Focus on improving body composition because stronger muscles and less excess body fat work together to support a healthier metabolism.

1. Make muscle your first priority instead of focusing only on weight loss — If you’re trying to lose weight, don’t sacrifice muscle in the process. Losing muscle while losing fat works against your metabolism because muscle uses glucose for energy. Strength training several times each week, combined with regular daily movement such as walking, gives your muscles the stimulus they need to stay strong.

The research showed that people with both excess body fat and poor muscle health faced the greatest diabetes risk. That means preserving muscle isn’t simply about appearance; it’s one of the most effective ways to support healthy blood sugar and metabolic health over the long term.

2. Train smarter instead of simply training longer — More exercise isn’t always better. Research discussed by cardiologist Dr. James O’Keefe shows that strength training has a “sweet spot.”3 The greatest health benefits come from moderate amounts of resistance exercise, while excessive training causes those benefits to level off and eventually decline.

Keep most strength-training sessions to about 20 to 40 minutes, using a weight that becomes challenging after about 10 repetitions. Give your muscles a day or two to recover before the next workout. For most people, two or three strength-training sessions each week provide the greatest long-term benefit.

Once total strength-training time climbs beyond roughly two hours per week, the additional health gains become much smaller, and after about three to four hours weekly, they continue to decline.

3. Eat enough protein and healthy carbohydrates to support muscle growth — Your muscles need both building materials and fuel. I recommend aiming for about 0.8 grams of protein per pound of lean body mass (about 1.76 grams per kilogram), with one-third coming from collagen-rich sources like slow-cooked meats or bone broth.

Pair that with enough healthy carbohydrates to support cellular energy production. Most adults need about 250 grams of carbohydrates each day. Start with whole fruit and white rice if you have digestive issues, gradually adding in other well-tolerated carbohydrate sources as your gut health improves. Better fuel helps your muscles perform better during exercise and recover afterward.

4. Prioritize sleep to protect the muscle you’re building — Your muscles don’t grow during your workout — they grow while you recover, and sleep is when the bulk of that repair happens. During deep sleep, your body releases growth hormone, which drives muscle protein synthesis and tissue repair. Cut that short and the process stalls.

Poor sleep also raises cortisol, your body’s primary stress hormone, which breaks down muscle tissue and worsens insulin resistance, the exact combination this research links to the highest diabetes risk.

To support high-quality sleep each night, keep your bedroom cool and completely dark, stop eating at least three hours before bed and limit blue light exposure in the evening. If you’re doing everything right with training and nutrition but not seeing results, insufficient sleep is one of the first places to look.

5. Use blood flow restriction (BFR) training if heavy weights aren’t an option — If you’re older, have joint pain or are recovering from an injury, BFR, also called KAATSU training, offers another way to build muscle without lifting heavy weights. During BFR training, specialized bands partially restrict blood flow while you exercise with very light weights or, if you’re frail, even just your body weight.

This brief reduction in oxygen inside the working muscles stimulates muscle growth and increases the release of myokines, which are signaling proteins your muscles produce that support muscle repair and healthy metabolism. Because the resistance is so light, BFR places much less stress on your joints while still helping preserve or increase muscle mass. It also requires far less recovery time than traditional heavy lifting.

6. Measure your progress by your waist and strength, not just your weight — A bathroom scale doesn’t tell you how much muscle you’ve gained or lost. If your weight stays the same while your muscle increases and body fat declines, your metabolic health is moving in the right direction. To monitor your fat profile, track your waist-to-hip ratio.

To calculate it, divide your waist measurement by your hip measurement (using the same unit, such as inches or centimeters). Once you have the number, you can see how it lines up with risk categories:

Waist-to-hip ratio
Men
Women

Ideal
0.8
0.7

Low risk
0.85

You can also track grip strength at home with an inexpensive hand dynamometer; healthy grip strength generally falls above 72 pounds for men and 44 pounds for women, and improvements over time are one of the most reliable signs that your overall muscle health is heading in the right direction.

FAQs About Muscle Health and Type 2 Diabetes

Q: Why does muscle health matter if I’m more concerned about losing weight?
A: Muscle does much more than help you move. It’s one of the largest tissues in your body that actively absorbs glucose from your bloodstream, which directly helps keep blood sugar under control. The research found that people who had both excess body fat and poor muscle health faced a much higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes than people with healthy muscle, showing that preserving muscle is just as important as reducing excess fat.

Q: Is muscle loss only a concern for older adults?
A: No. While muscle loss becomes more common with age, this study found that the link between poor muscle health and Type 2 diabetes was especially strong in adults younger than 60 and in women. That means protecting your muscle should begin long before you reach retirement age.

Q: How much strength training is enough to support healthy muscles?
A: More isn’t necessarily better. Research suggests that two or three resistance-training sessions per week, lasting about 20 to 40 minutes each, provides the greatest long-term health benefits for most people. Training far beyond that amount offers diminishing returns and can reduce some of the advantages associated with regular strength exercise.

Q: What if I can’t lift heavy weights because of joint pain or an injury?
A: BFR, also called KAATSU training, allows you to stimulate muscle growth using very light weights or even just your body weight. Because it places much less stress on your joints than traditional weightlifting, it offers an effective option for older adults and anyone who can’t safely perform heavy resistance exercise.

Q: What’s a better way to measure progress than watching the number on the scale?
A: Focus on changes that reflect better body composition instead of body weight alone. Improvements in strength, waist size and muscle mass provide a clearer picture of your metabolic health than the scale by itself. Two people can weigh the same yet have very different diabetes risk depending on how much muscle and body fat they carry.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health regimen.

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In health communication, what does “identification” mean?

Remembering the facts in a message
Comparing several health recommendations
Understanding how a biological process works
Recognizing yourself in the person or situation
Identification occurs when people see their own experiences reflected in a story or situation, making the health message feel more personally relevant. Learn more.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) play an important role in human health, particularly within the gastrointestinal tract. They are produced in the colon through the bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber, the indigestible component of plant-based foods.

This fermentation process transforms complex carbohydrates into various SCFAs, including acetate, propionate and butyrate, each with distinct physiological effects. Among these, butyrate stands out for the properties that have drawn the most research attention in metabolic health.

A Primer on Butyrate — The Metabolic Powerhouse Fueling Your Gut

According to a review published in Pharmacological Research,1 butyrate has been reported to improve “body weight and composition, lipid profile, insulin sensitivity, and glycemia in animal models of MetS [metabolic syndrome].” The same review cautions that these animal results may not translate to people, because butyrate has poor systemic availability and is rapidly cleared, and notes that human trials to date have not demonstrated substantial benefit. But that’s not all researchers have examined. They also noted:

“In vitro studies have examined the influence of butyrate on intestinal cells, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, hepatocytes, pancreatic islets and blood vessels, highlighting genes and pathways that may contribute to its beneficial effects. Butyrate’s influences in these cells have been attributed primarily to its epigenetic effects as a histone deacetylase inhibitor, as well as its role as an agonist of free fatty acid receptors.” 2

While fiber is essential for butyrate production, you need a healthy gut microbiome to reap the benefits of fiber. As discussed in my book “Your Guide to Cellular Health,” the vast majority of the population have damaged microbiomes due to exposure to metabolic poisons.

For these individuals, high fiber intake exacerbates existing issues by fueling pathogenic bacteria, leading to the production of endotoxins that compromise cellular energy and overall health. Later, I’ll explain why this occurs, as well as strategies to repair your gut health, enabling it to process fiber in a way that supports your health.Butyrate Is a Primary Fuel for Your Gut Lining

Unlike most cells in your body that rely on glucose for energy, your colonocytes draw heavily on butyrate. This metabolic adaptation highlights butyrate’s role in maintaining the health and function of your colonic epithelium, though previous reviews question whether butyrate is their exclusive preferred fuel.

Butyrate is transported into your colonocytes through several mechanisms, including passive diffusion, which is concentration-dependent, and active transport via other cell membrane transporters.3 Once inside your colonocytes, butyrate undergoes beta-oxidation within the mitochondria, your cells’ powerhouses.

This metabolic pathway breaks down butyrate into acetyl-CoA to generate ATP, the primary energy currency of your cells.4,5 This process is remarkably efficient, providing your colonocytes with up to 70% to 80% of their energy needs, a substantially higher proportion compared to other energy substrates like glucose or glutamine.6

This efficient energy use is central to maintaining colonocyte health.7,8 Furthermore, butyrate’s role as a primary fuel source for your colonocytes contributes to their ability to remove oxygen from your colon, which helps create the ideal environment for your beneficial gut bacteria to grow.9The Impact Butyrate Has on Your Gut Barrier Function

Your gut barrier, a dynamic and complex structure composed of a single layer of epithelial cells connected by tight junctions, along with a protective mucus layer, plays a vital role in selectively regulating the passage of substances between your gut and your bloodstream.

It prevents the entry of harmful bacteria, toxins and undigested food particles while allowing the absorption of essential nutrients. But how does it protect, to be exact? As explained in a narrative review published in Clinical Nutrition10 — drawing largely on rat, pig, and cell-culture studies:

“Butyrate strengthens the gut barrier by targeting three complementary elements: tight junctions, the mucus layer and the production of antimicrobial peptides. Many tight junction proteins are upregulated by butyrate (e.g., TJP1, claudin 7, cadherin 1 in the rat ileum; TJP1, claudin 3 and occludin in pig colons).

Tight junction protein 1 (TJP1; previously named ZO1) is particularly important, as it modulates tight junctions and is commonly used as a marker of intestinal permeability. In contrast, claudin 2, a tight junction protein that forms gap channels and contributes to a leaky gut barrier, is downregulated by butyrate …

In addition to altering the expression of tight junction proteins, butyrate promotes tight junction assembly by activating AMPK, reducing the permeability of colon cancer cell monolayers.”*

As noted earlier, the absorption of butyrate by the colonocytes also reinforces the colon, which may help limit inflammation and immune activation.11,12 Disruptions to gut barrier function have been linked to various gastrointestinal disorders, as well as metabolic diseases, according to a 2021 study published in Metabolites.13

*These findings are from laboratory or animal research and may not directly apply to human health.

Butyrate and Its Impact on Inflammation

Butyrate has been studied for its anti-inflammatory action, which it appears to exert through a variety of intricate mechanisms. A review published in Immune Network14 outlines mechanisms by which butyrate may down-regulate inflammation driven by pathogenic gut bacteria:

“Butyrate can down-regulate inflammation by inhibiting the growth of pathobionts, increasing mucosal barrier integrity, encouraging obligate anaerobic bacterial dominance and decreasing oxygen availability in the gut.

Butyrate can also decrease excessive inflammation through modulation of immune cells such as increasing functionalities of M2 macrophages and regulatory T cells and inhibiting infiltration by neutrophils.”15

What Animal Research Suggests About Butyrate and Body Weight

Research in mice published in the journal Gut16 found that butyrate influenced energy expenditure. In these animals, colon-absorbed butyrate was associated with increased energy expenditure in tissues including muscle, liver, and white and brown fat.

Additionally, the researchers observed that butyrate promoted fat oxidation and reduced fat accumulation in these mice. Oral butyrate also lowered food intake, an effect the authors attributed to appetite-regulating pathways in the gut and brain.

As reported by the authors,17 “Butyrate acts on the gut-brain neural circuit to improve energy metabolism via reducing energy intake and enhancing fat oxidation by activating Bat [brown adipose tissue].”

Supporting these findings, a 2023 review published in Frontiers in Endocrinology18 — drawing predominantly on rodent research — reported associations between butyrate and measures of body weight, fat mass, and glucose regulation. In the animal studies reviewed, butyrate supplementation was associated with improvements in fasting glucose, insulin levels, markers of insulin resistance, and plasma triglyceride levels. According to this featured review:19

“Butyrate reduced lipid accumulation by regulating liver mitochondrial function, reducing liver mitochondrial energy efficiency and improving the capability of mitochondria to utilize fat as metabolic fuel …

Short-term oral administration of butyrate can alleviate diet-induced obesity in mice by stimulating mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle. Butyrate has also been reported to increase the number of mitochondria in skeletal muscle.”*

Similarly, a review published in Molecules20 described animal research in which butyrate reduced food intake by suppressing appetite. The same review reported effects on liver fat accumulation in mice fed a high-fat diet. “[Butyrate] is able to downregulate the expression of nine key genes involved in the intestinal cholesterol biosynthesis pathway and thereby it may inhibit hypercholesterolemia,” the researchers noted.21

*These findings are from laboratory or animal research and may not directly apply to human health.

Dietary Fiber Helps Produce Butyrate, but There Are Caveats

As shown in the featured studies, butyrate is far more than a simple metabolic byproduct. It serves as a major energy source for your colonocytes and supports your gut barrier, and research — much of it in animal and laboratory models — suggests it may also influence insulin sensitivity, inflammatory signaling, and appetite regulation.

In short, butyrate plays an important role in maintaining your gut health and overall well-being. However, while promoting butyrate production through dietary interventions like increasing fiber intake is generally recommended, this assumes that you have a properly functioning gut.

As I discuss in my book “Your Guide to Cellular Health,” for those with compromised gut health, simply going for a high-fiber intake to promote SCFA production is highly counterproductive. Why? Because when you eat fiber with an imbalanced gut microbiome, the bad bacteria (oxygen-tolerant bacteria) can ferment the fiber and produce endotoxins that undermine metabolism and cellular function.

To truly benefit from a high-fiber diet, you need to first heal and seal your gut so that beneficial bacteria can thrive. Getting enough carbs is an important part of that process.Building Your Gut from the Ground Up

Most adults need about 250 grams of targeted carbs a day from healthy, unprocessed sources — considerably more if you are very active. For most people with ordinary digestive complaints, well-cooked white rice and whole fruits are the place to start. Ripe, whole fruits provide essential nutrients, healthy carbohydrates and dietary fiber that your gut needs to produce butyrate and other SCFAs. As a bonus, your bowel movements may also become more regular.

If your gut is severely compromised, I recommend you kickstart your gut-healing with dextrose water. Simply mix pure dextrose with water and sip slowly over several hours to avoid spiking your insulin levels. After one to two weeks, start the transition to increasingly more complex carb sources — fruit juice with pulp, then pulp-free juice sipped slowly, then whole fruits, and finally complex carbs and starches like white rice.

Now, the question is, how do you know if you have a healthy gut? As detailed in “Your Guide to Cellular Health,” the five indicators of good gut health are:

• Regular bowel movements (one to three times daily)

• Minimal bloating or discomfort

• The ability to digest a wide variety of food

• Good energy levels

• Proper nutrient absorption Again, once your gut is functioning well, the key to increasing your butyrate production lies in dietary fiber. Think of it as the raw material for the butyrate “factory” in your gut. When you eat fiber-rich whole foods, your gut bacteria ferment that fiber, producing SCFAs as a byproduct. If your digestion still is not where you want it, build up to these gradually. Excellent sources of dietary fiber include fruits (like apples, berries and bananas) and vegetables (especially leafy greens, broccoli and carrots). Other gut-friendly carbs include:

• Well-cooked white rice

• Sourdough bread

• Root vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes

• Fresh, ripe fruits

• Masa harina, or traditionally made tortillas

Limit Linoleic Acid to Support Butyrate Production

Another dietary factor that impacts your gut health is excess intake of linoleic acid (LA), which I believe is one of the biggest contributors to metabolic dysfunction and poor gut health when consumed in large amounts. To be clear, your body still needs small amounts of LA to function optimally. However, the issue is that LA is so pervasive in the modern food supply, particularly in ultraprocessed foods.

A laboratory study of bacterial cultures published in Scientific Reports22 found that LA induced metabolic stress in Bifidobacterium breve DSM 20213, a beneficial gut bacterium, altering biosynthetic pathways for amino acids, carbohydrates and fats and slowing its growth.

Given LA’s pervasive presence in ultraprocessed foods, keeping its intake in check is an important part of protecting your health and supporting butyrate production. I recommend limiting your LA intake to less than 5 grams a day.

Keep in mind that LA is an essential fat — your body does require small amounts of it — so the goal is to return to the historical intake range, not to drive it toward zero.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Consult a qualified health care provider before making changes to your health regimen.